The Sleepwalkers (104 page)

91
. Forsbach,
Kiderlen-Wächter
, pp. 469, 471, 474, 476, 477.

92
. These comments are recorded in ‘Indications données à M. Stéphen Pichon à M. de Margerie, 18 October 1918', in AMAE, NS Allemagne 51, fo. 202, cited in Stefan Schmidt,
Frankreichs Aussenpolitik in der Julikrise 1914. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Ausbruchs des Ersten Weltrieges
(Munich, 2009), p. 228.

93
. Grey to Bertie, 19 and 20 July 1911, Bertie to Grey, 21 July 1911,
BD
, vol. 7, docs. 397, 405, 408, pp. 376, 382, 385; see also Samuel R. Williamson,
The Politics of Grand Strategy. Britain and France Prepare for War, 1904– 1914
(Cambridge, MA, 1969), pp. 146–7.

94
. Keith M. Wilson, ‘The Agadir Crisis, the Mansion House Speech and the Double-edgedness of Agreements',
Historical Journal
, 15/3 (1972), p. 517.

95
. Bertie to Grey, Paris, 17 July 1911,
BD
, vol. 7, doc. 391, pp. 370–71.

96
. Grey to Goschen, London, 21 July 1911, ibid., doc. 411, p. 390.

97
. ‘Mr Lloyd George on British Prestige',
The Times
, 22 July 1911, p. 7, col. A.

98
. Stevenson,
Armaments
, p. 186.

99
. Timothy Boyle, ‘New Light on Lloyd George's Mansion House Speech',
Historical Journal
, 23/2 (1980), pp. 431–3; on the anti-German orientation of the speech, see Richard A. Cosgrove, ‘A Note on Lloyd George's Speech at the Mansion House, 21 July 1911',
Historical Journal
, 12/4 (1969), pp. 698–701; on the liberal imperialist planning behind the speech, see Wilson, ‘The Agadir Crisis', pp. 513–32; also id.,
The Policy of the Entente. Essays on the Determinants of British Foreign Policy, 1904–1914
(Cambridge, 1985), p. 27; Williamson,
Grand Strategy
, pp. 153–5.

100
. Cited in Wilson, ‘Agadir Crisis', pp. 513–14.

101
. Wilson,
Policy of the Entente
, p. 27.

102
. Steiner,
British Foreign Office
, p. 125.

103
. On the place of the ‘war option' in Grey's policy, see Jost Dülffer, Martin Kröger and Rolf-Harald Wippich,
Vermiedene Kriege. Deeskalation von Konflikten der Grossmächte zwischen Krimkrieg und Ersten Weltkrieg 1856–1914
(Munich, 1997), p. 639.

104
. Bethmann to Metternich, 22 November 1911,
GP
, vol. 29, doc. 10657, pp. 261–6 (on the British government's ‘order to prepare for war'); Bethmann to Metternich, 22 November 1911,
GP
, vol. 31, doc. 11321, pp. 31–3 (p. 32 on the ‘readiness to strike'). On Britain's role in escalating the crisis: Hew Strachan,
The First World War
(Oxford, 2001), p. 26.

105
. Aehrenthal, audience with Emperor Franz Joseph, Mendel, 3 August 1911,
ÖUAP
, vol. 3, doc. 2579, pp. 292–4, here p. 294.

106
. Conversation between Kiderlen and Osten-Sacken, reported in Osten-Sacken to Neratov, Berlin, 20 August 1911,
IBZI
, series 3, vol. 1, part 1, doc. 238, p. 344.

107
. Friedrich Kiessling,
Gegen den grossen Krieg? Entspannung in den internationalen Beziehungen, 1911–1914
(Munich, 2002), p. 59.

108
. Wilson,
Policy of the Entente
, pp. 31–6.

109
. Ibid., p. 29.

110
. Williamson,
Grand Strategy
, p. 46; Christopher Andrew,
Théophile Delcassé and the Making of the Entente Cordiale. A Reappraisal of French Foreign Policy (1898–1905)
(London, 1968), pp. 283–4; on Haldane's involvement in these developments, see Edward M. Spiers,
Haldane. An Army Reformer
(Edinburgh, 1980), p. 78.

111
. Williamson,
Grand Strategy
, esp. chap. 7.

112
. Wilson,
Policy of the Entente
, p. 123.

113
. Schmidt,
Frankreichs Aussenpolitik
, pp. 156–171, 196.

114
. Baron Guillaume to Davignon, 14 April 1913, MAEB AD, France 11, Correspondance politique – légations.

115
. Edward House,
The Intimate Papers of Edward House
(2 vols., London, 1926), vol. 1,
Behind the Political Curtain, 1912–1915
, pp. 254–5.

116
. I owe this tidbit to Professor Laurence W. Martin, author of
Peace Without Victory. Woodrow Wilson and the British Liberals
(Port Washington, 1973).

117
. Peter Gatrell,
Government, Industry and Rearmament in Russia, 1900– 1914. The Last Argument of Tsarism
(Cambridge, 1994), pp. 128–9; William C. Fuller,
Strategy and Power in Russia, 1600–1914
(New York, 1992), p. 411; Stevenson,
Armaments
, p. 156.

118
. Gatrell,
Government
, pp. 147–8.

119
. V. A. Sukhomlinov,
Erinnerungen
(Berlin, 1924), pp. 271–7; V. N. Kokovtsov,
Out of My Past: The Memoirs of Count Kokovtsov, Russian Minister of Finance, 1904–1914, Chairman of the Council of Ministers, 1911– 1914
, ed. H. H. Fischer, trans. Laura Matveev (Stanford, 1935), pp. 229, 313–5.

120
. Stevenson,
Armaments
, p. 178.

121
. Peter-Christian Witt,
Die Finanzpolitik des Deutschen Reiches von 1903 bis 1913. Eine Studie zur Innenpolitik des wilhelminischen Deutschland
(Lübeck, 1970), pp. 318–20, 323.

122
. Stig Förster,
Der doppelte Militarismus. Die deutsche Heeresrüstungspolitik zwischen Status-Quo-Sicherung und Aggression, 1890–1913
(Stuttgart and Wiesbaden, 1985), pp. 112–16, 224.

123
. See Terence Zuber,
Inventing the Schlieffen Plan
(Oxford, 2002), passim.

124
. On the structural constraints on Reich military expenditure, see Niall Ferguson, ‘Public Finance and National Security. The Domestic Origins of the First World War Revisited',
Past & Present
, 142 (1994), pp. 141–68.

125
. Karl von Einem to Bernhard von Bülow, 18 June 1906, cited in Herrmann,
The Arming of Europe
, p. 67.

126
. Annika Mombauer,
Helmuth von Moltke and the Origins of the First World War
(Cambridge, 2001), p. 88.

127
. David G. Herrmann,
The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War
(Princeton, 1996), pp. 64–5.

128
. Conrad cited in ibid., p. 98; Stevenson,
Armaments
, p. 6; Norman Stone, ‘Army and Society in the Habsburg Monarchy 1900–1914',
Past & Present
, 33 (April 1966), pp. 95–111; István Deák, ‘The Fall of Austria-Hungary: Peace, Stability, and Legitimacy' in Geir Lundestad (ed.),
The Fall of Great Powers
(Oxford, 1994), p. 89.

129
. On the struggle for funds, see Joseph Joffre,
Mémoires du Maréchal Joffre (1910–1917)
(Paris, 1932), pp. 41–59, citation p. 58; Gerd Krumeich,
Armaments and Politics in France on the Eve of the First World War. The Introduction of the Three-Year Conscription 1913–1914
, trans. Stephen Conn (Leamington Spa, 1984); Stevenson,
Armaments
, p. 218; on realignments in opinion, see Paul B. Miller,
From Revolutionaries to Citizens. Antimilitarism in France, 1870–1914
(Durham and London, 2002), pp. 173–200.

130
. Krumeich,
Armaments and Politics
, p. 47.

131
. Förster,
Der doppelte Militarismus
, pp. 216–220, 272; Herrmann,
The Arming of Europe
, p. 190; Witt,
Die Finanzpolitik
, pp. 356–7.

132
. William C. Fuller,
Civil-Military Conflict in Imperial Russia 1881–1914
(Princeton, 1985), p. 225; quotation: H. H. Fisher (ed.),
Out of My Past. The Memoirs of Count Kokovtsov Russian Minister of Finance, 1904–1911, Chairman of the Council of Ministers, 1911–1914
, trans. Laura Matveev (Stanford, 1935), p. 340.

133
. Joseph Caillaux,
Mes Mémoires
(3 vols., Paris, 1942–7), vol. 2,
Mes audaces – Agadir . . . 1909–12
, pp. 211–15; Krumeich,
Armaments and Politics
, p. 24.

134
. Lieven,
Nicholas II
, p. 175; the reference to ‘civilian attitudes' is Durnovo's, see D. C. B. Lieven,
Russia's Rulers Under the Old Regime
(New Haven, 1989), p. 218.

135
. Bruce W. Menning,
Bayonets Before Bullets. The Imperial Russian Army, 1861–1914
(Bloomington, 1992), pp. 221–37.

136
. Fuller,
Strategy and Power
, pp. 424–33.

137
. Fisher (ed.),
Memoirs of Count Kokovtsov
, p. 348.

138
. David M. McDonald, ‘A Lever without a Fulcrum: Domestic Factors and Russian Foreign Policy, 1904–1914', in Hugh Ragsdale (ed.),
Imperial Russian Foreign Policy
(Cambridge, 1993), pp. 268–314, here p. 302; on support for Sukhomlinov in the Council, see Fisher (ed.),
Memoirs of Count Kokovtsov
, p. 349.

139
. See, for example, Peter Rassow, ‘Schlieffen und Holstein',
Historische Zeitschrift
, 173 (1952), pp. 297–313.

140
. Widenmann to Tirpitz, London, 28 October and 30 October 1911,
GP
, vol. 31, docs. 11313, 11314, pp. 11–15, 16–17.

141
. For an illuminating analysis of the Widenmann reports, to which my discussion is indebted, see Kiessling,
Gegen den grossen Krieg?
, pp. 73–4.

142
. Bethmann Hollweg to Metternich, Berlin, 31 October 1911; Metternich to Bethmann Hollweg, London, 1 November 1911,
GP
, vol. 31, docs. 11315, 11316, pp. 17–18, 18–24.

143
. Kiessling,
Gegen den grossen Krieg?
, p. 74.

144
. ‘Der Kaiser machte eine, der Kanzler eine andere Politik, der Generalstab seine Antworthen für sich'. Alfred von Waldersee to Jagow (State Secretary for Foreign Affairs), 6 May 1919, cited in Dieter Hoffmann,
Der Sprung ins Dunkle: Oder wie der 1. Weltkrieg entfesselt wurde
(Leipzig, 2010), p. 137.

145
. D. Ralston,
The Army of the Republic
(Cambridge, MA, 1967), pp. 338–40 observes that Moltke, unlike Joffre, had to contend with an emperor who took his duties as ‘supreme warlord' seriously; critical of this view: Douglas Porch,
The March to the Marne. The French Army, 1871–1914
(Cambridge, 1981), pp. 171–2.

146
. Wilson diary entries 9 August 1911 and 16 November 1911, Imperial War Museum London; third quotation: Hew Strachan,
The Politics of the British Army
(Oxford, 1997), p. 114; on Wilson's political and constitutional views see ibid., pp. 114–15, 125–6.

147
. Samuel Williamson and Russell Van Wyk,
Soldiers, Statesmen and the Coming of the Great War. A Brief Documentary History
(Boston, 2003), p. 218.

148
. Raymond Poincaré, ‘Entretien avec Kokowtsoff – Chemins de fer stratégiques', St Petersburg, August 1912, AMAE, NS Russie 41, fo. 280.

149
. Porch,
March to the Marne
, p. 175; on the binding effect of the Russian alliance on French security arrangements, see also comments of 17 June 1914 by Maurice Herbette reported in Georges Louis,
Les Carnets de Georges Louis
(2 vols., Paris, 1926), vol. 2, p. 114.

150
. Krumeich,
Armaments and Politics
, p. 214.

151
. Mombauer,
Moltke
, p. 45.

152
. Fuller,
Civil-Military Conflict
, p. 225.

153
. Marc Trachtenberg, ‘The Coming of the First World War: A Reassessment', in id.,
History and Strategy
(Princeton, 1991).

154
. Pourtalès to Bethmann Hollweg, St Petersburg, 1 February 1913, reporting a conversation with Sazonov, PA-AA, R 10896.

155
. Ibid., 11 March 1914, PA-AA, R 10898.

156
. Miliukov,
Political Memoirs
, p. 235.

157
. Modris Eksteins, ‘Sir Edward Grey and Imperial Germany in 1914',
Journal of Contemporary History
, 6/3 (1971), pp. 121–31.

158
. Bernhard von Bülow, speech to the Reichstag, 29 March 1909, cited in Bernhard Rosenberger,
Zeitungen als Kriegstreiber? Die Rolle der Presse im Vorfeld des Ersten Weltkrieges
(Cologne, 1998), p. 33.

159
. On these developments and their impact on German politics, see Joachim Radkau,
Das Zeitalter der Nervosität. Deutschland zwischen Bismarck und Hitler
(Munich, 1998); Mommsen,
Bürgerstolz und Weltmachtstreben
, p. 187; Hans-Ülrich Wehler,
Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte
(5 vols., Munich, 1987–2008), vol. 3, p. 905; J. Sperber,
The Kaiser's Voters. Electors and Elections in Imperial Germany
(Cambridge, 1997); J. N. Retallack,
Notables of the Right. The Conservative Party and Political Mobilization in Germany
(Winchester, 1988; G. Eley,
The Reshaping of the German Right. Radical Nationalism and Political Change after Bismarck
(New Haven, 1980); T. Nipperdey,
Die Organisation der deutschen Parteien vor 1918
(Düsseldorf, 1961); D. Blackbourn, ‘The Politics of Demagogy in Imperial Germany', in id.,
Populists and Patricians. Essays in Modern German History
(London, 1987), pp. 217–45, here pp. 222ff.

160
. Bosworth,
Italy
, p. 44.

161
. On Corradini and his influence, in a pan-European context, see Monique de Taeye-Henen,
Le Nationalisme d'Enrico Corradini et les origines du fascisme dans la revue florentine Il Regno, 1903–1906
(Paris, 1973); and the useful introduction to Enrico Corradini,
Scritti e discorsi
, ed. Lucia Strappini (Turin, 1980), pp. vii–lix.

162
. William Mulligan,
The Origins of the First World War
(Cambridge, 2010), p. 139.

163
. McDonald,
United Government
, p. 182; Louise McReynolds,
The News Under Russia's Old Regime. The Development of a Mass-Circulation Press
(Princeton, 1991), pp. 223–52.

164
. See Bosworth,
Italy
, p. 17; Clark,
Kaiser Wilhelm II
, pp. 218–55; Geppert,
Pressekriege
, passim.

165
. Lieven,
Nicholas II
, p. 96.

166
. Buisseret (Belgian minister in St Petersburg) to Davignon (Belgian Minister of Foreign Affairs), 17 January 1914, MAEB AD, Empire Russe 34, 1914.

167
. Hardinge to Nicolson, 28 October 1908, cited in Keith Neilson, ‘“My Beloved Russians”: Sir Arthur Nicolson and Russia, 1906–1916',
International History Review
, 9/4 (1987), pp. 538–9.

168
. Judith A. Head, ‘Public Opinions and Middle-Eastern Railways.The Russo-German Railway Negotations of 1910–11',
International History Review
, 6/1 (1984), pp. 28–47, here pp. 46–7.

169
. Theodore Roosevelt,
America and the World War
(London, 1915), p. 36.

170
. Hibbert,
Edward VII
, pp. 256–7; Tombs and Tombs,
That Sweet Enemy
, pp. 438–40.

171
. Kosztowits to Tets van Goudriaan, 7 March 1906, NA, 2.05.36, doc. 10, Rapporten aan en briefwisseling met het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken.

172
. Stevenson,
Armaments
, p. 193; Allain,
Agadir
, pp. 379–82.

173
. Descos (French minister in Belgrade) to Doumergue (French foreign minister), 23 March 1914, 22 April 1914, 9 June 1914 in
DDF
, 3rd series (1911–14), vol. 10, docs. 17, 145, 347, pp. 26–7, 252–5, 513–15.