The Psychology Book (85 page)

Piaget’s portrayal of children

this assumption at the time, more

collaborative space where students

as primarily independent and

recent cross-cultural investigations

teach and learn from each other.

autonomous in their construction of

concerning the sensorimotor stage

knowledge and their understanding

(including one study conducted by

Criticisms of Piaget’s work

of the physical world also met with

Pierre Dasen in 1994) indicated that

Despite his popularity and the

some resistance, as it seemed to

the sub-stages suggested by Piaget

broad influence of his work in the

ignore the important contribution

are indeed universal, though

fields of developmental psychology,

that other people make to a child’s

environmental and cultural factors

education, morality, evolution,

cognitive development. Pioneering

seem to affect the rate at which

philosophy, and even artificial

psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s work

these stages are reached, and how

intelligence, Piaget’s ideas were

focused on proving that knowledge

quickly they are then completed.

not accepted without scrutiny and

and thought are essentially social

Piaget’s work unquestionably

criticism. As with all highly

in nature, and disproving Piaget’s

paved the way for many new

influential theories, years of

assumption that a child was not

areas of enquiry into the nature

exploration and research have

really a part of the social whole. His

of child development and human

brought to light its problems and

theory suggests human development

cognitive development. He created

weaknesses. Piaget’s notion of

exists on three levels: the cultural

the context in which a vast body of

egocentrism, for instance, has been

and the interpersonal as well as the

research took shape in the 20th and

called into question. Studies by the

individual, and his main concern

21st centuries, and fundamentally

US psychologist Susan Gelman in

was with the first two levels. His

changed the nature of education

1979 demonstrated that four-year-

“zone of proximal development”

in the Western world. ■

Australian Aboriginal children

aged between eight and 14, and living

in remote parts of central Australia,

were found by Pierre Dasen to progress

through the stages identified by Piaget.

The deep structures,

the basic cognitive processes,

are indeed universal.

Pierre Dasen

270

WE BECOME

OURSELVES

THROUGH OTHERS

LEV VYGOTSKY (1896–1934)

IN CONTEXT

APPROACH

F
or Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky believed that children

Vygotsky, the skills needed

absorb the accumulated wisdom,

to reason, understand, and

values, and technical knowledge of

remember all stem from a child’s

previous generations through

Social constructivism

experiences with parents, teachers,

interactions with their caregivers,

BEFORE

and peers. Vygotsky saw human

and use these “tools” to learn how

development as taking place on

to conduct themselves effectively in

1860s
Francis Galton sparks

three levels—cultural, interpersonal,

the world. But it is only through

debate about whether nature

and individual. He focused on the

social interaction that children can

(innate ability) or nurture

cultural and interpersonal levels,

experience and internalize these

(upbringing) has the most

believing that our most formative

cultural tools. Even our ability to

influence on personality.

experiences are social; “we become

think and reason on an individual

AFTER

ourselves through others.”

level stems from social activities in

1952
Jean Piaget argues

the course of our development that

that the ability to absorb and

foster our innate cognitive abilities.

process information develops

Vygotsky’s theories influenced

through interaction between

approaches to both learning and

teaching. He believed that teachers

children’s innate talents and

should play an instructive role,

their environment.

All higher

constantly guiding and nurturing

1966
Jerome Bruner suggests

psychological functions

their pupils in order to improve their

that any subject can be taught

are internalized

attention span, concentration, and

effectively to a child at any

relationships of the

learning skills, and so build up their

stage of development.

social kind.

competence. This idea had a

Lev Vygotsky

marked effect on education,

1990
American educational

particularly in the late 20th century,

psychologist Robert Slavin

stimulating a shift from child-

designs his Student Teams

centered to curriculum-centered

Achievement Divisions (STAD)

teaching, and to a greater use of

to promote more collaborative

collaborative learning. ■

learning, and downgrade

competitive, winner–loser

See also:
Francis Galton 28–29 ■ Jerome Bruner 164–65 ■ Jean Piaget 262–69

approaches to education.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 271

A CHILD IS NOT

BEHOLDEN TO ANY

PARTICULAR PARENT

BRUNO BETTELHEIM (1903–1990)

IN CONTEXT

APPROACH

W
hile running a center

where disturbed children

were raised successfully

by professional carers, Bruno

Parenting systems

Bettelheim began to question the

common assumption that the best

BEFORE

upbringing involved a close mother–

1945
American psychoanalyst

child relationship. He wondered

René Spitz reports on the

if the Western world might have

disastrous effects of bringing

something to learn from communal

up children in institutions.

child-rearing systems, such as the

1951
John Bowlby concludes

one used on an Israeli kibbutz.

that an infant requires an

In 1964, Bettelheim spent seven

intimate and continuous

weeks on a kibbutz, where children

Kibbutz children
, Bettelheim found,

relationship with his mother.

were cared for in special houses,

often develop closer bonds with each

away from their family home. In his

other than with adults. This ability to

1958
US anthropologist

relate well to their peers may explain

1967 book
The Children of the Dream
,

Melford Spiro writes
Children

their professional success as adults.

he stated that “a kibbutz child is not

of the Kibbutz
, insinuating

beholden to any particular parent,”

that Western child-rearing

and although he observed that this

often become accomplished adults.

methods, with the focus on

led to fewer one-to-one relationships,

In fact, the children Bettelheim

the mother as the main carer,

it did encourage many less intimate

studied were tracked down in

work best in all cultures.

friendships and an active social life.

the 1990s by a journalist, who

discovered that a high percentage

AFTER

Successful adults

were now successful professionals.

1973
American psychiatrists

Before his study, Bettelheim had

Bettelheim concluded that the

Charles M. Johnston and

predicted that a kibbutz might

kibbutz’s communal approach was

Robert Deisher argue that

produce mediocre adults who had

a huge success. By publishing his

communal child-rearing

little cultural impact on society.

findings, he hoped to improve

provides advantages that

Instead, he found that kibbutzniks

childcare systems in the US. ■

few nuclear families offer.

See also:
Virginia Satir 146–47 ■ John Bowlby 274–77

272

ANYTHING THAT

GROWS HAS A

GR

ERIK ERIKSON (1902–1994)

OUND PLAN

Stage three, from three to six years,

IN CONTEXT

E
rik Erikson understood

human development in terms

presents the crisis of “initiative

of the epigenetic principle,

versus guilt.” This is when children

APPROACH

which states that every organism is

learn to act creatively and playfully,

Psychosocial development

born with a certain purpose and its

but also with purpose. As they

BEFORE

successful development results in

interact with others they discover

1930s
Jean Piaget proposes

the fulfillment of this purpose. In

that their actions can adversely

a stage-based theory of

Erikson’s own words, “anything that

affect someone else. Severe

cognitive development.

grows has a ground plan, and out of

punishments at this stage can

this the parts arise.” He proposed

inflict paralyzing feelings of guilt.

1956
Sigmund Freud develops

that the human personality unfolds

From 6 to 12, children focus on

his theory of psychosexual

and evolves in eight predetermined

education and learning social skills.

development, claiming there

stages. According to Erikson, this

This fourth stage is known as

are five stages through which

growth involves the constant

“industry versus inferiority,” and it

a child progresses toward

interaction between heredity

provides a feeling of competence,

sexual maturity.

and environmental influences.

although an over-emphasis on work

can lead children mistakenly to

AFTER

The eight stages

equate self-worth with productivity.