The Psychology Book (74 page)

begun to mimic each others’

during the Nazi invasion of

simplistic, as it doesn’t take into

expressions in the process of

Poland. Two weeks later, their

account other possible effects of

empathizing, resulting in similar

building was bombed and both

frequent exposure.

wrinkle patterns over time.

of his parents were killed. He

One study used banner ads to

Known for the breadth of his

spent six months recuperating

test the mere exposure effect on

work on the basic processes of

in a hospital, after which he

college-aged students. Subjects were

social behavior, Zajonc helped

was arrested by Nazi soldiers

presented with an article to read on

to create the modern field of social

and sent to a German labor

a computer screen while banner ads

psychology. He used his work on

camp. He escaped with two

flashed along the top of the screen.

thought and feeling to explore

other prisoners and walked

The results indicated that those who

issues such as racism, genocide,

200 miles (320km) to France

had been exposed more frequently to

and terrorism, hoping that research

only to be recaptured and

the banner ads did indeed rate the

could ultimately help to prevent

imprisoned again. He broke

ads more favorably than those who

war and human suffering.

out for a final time and made

■

his way to the UK.

had seen it less frequently or not at

After World War II, Zajonc

all. However, another study found

moved to the US, where he

that familiarity with a brand name

established himself as an

can create an ambivalent attitude.

eminent psychologist, gaining

This may be because people have

psychology degrees to PhD

both good and bad associations

level at the University of

with familiar companies, and all of

Michigan. He worked there

these associations are brought to

until his retirement in 1994,

mind with frequent exposure,

when he became an emeritus

leading to greater ambivalence. As

professor at Stanford University.

a result, it is unclear whether mere

Zajonc died of pancreatic

familiarity, created through repeated

cancer at the age of 85.

advertising, is good for sales.

Key works

Familiar faces

1968
Attitudinal Effects of

Zajonc found that not only does

Couples grow to resemble each

Mere Exposure

exposure influence how a person

other
over time because they express

1975
Birth Order and

feels about someone, but it can

empathy through reflecting each

Intellectual Development

even change the way a person

other’s facial expressions; this leads

1980
Feeling and Thinking

looks over time. With a group of

to the formation of similar facial lines.

236

WHO LIKES

COMPETENT

WOMEN?

JANET TAYLOR SPENCE (1923– )

IN CONTEXT

APPROACH

U
ntil the women’s liberation intellectual leadership, and social

movement took hold in the

and economic freedom. The results

1970s, Janet Taylor Spence’s

were surprising. Contrary to the

research had focused primarily on

researchers’ expectations, subjects

Gender studies

anxiety. However, after reading a

not only preferred more competent

BEFORE

study conducted by two of her

to less competent women, but even

colleagues about how competence

awarded the highest ratings to the

1961
Albert Bandura develops

in men correlated with likeability,

women who were competent in

social learning theory, which

the American psychologist turned

stereotypically masculine ways.

suggests that boys and girls

to issues relating to gender. Noticing

This landmark study was

behave differently because

that the study did not consider

seminal in launching gender

they are treated differently.

the female gender, she decided to

research as a subcategory within

1970
Robert Helmreich

conduct a similar study that focused

the field of social psychology. ■

and Elliot Aronson publish a

entirely on women. The resulting

study showing that men find

paper—
Who likes competent

competent men more likeable

women?
—was published in 1972.

than incompetent ones.

Working with Robert Helmreich,

Taylor Spence set out to test

AFTER

whether men and women preferred

1992
US psychologist Alice

competent women to incompetent

Even our conservative

Eagly finds that women are

ones. The two psychologists

subjects… rated highest

evaluated more negatively

suspected that only people who

the woman who was

when they display leadership in

believed in sexual equality would

competent in stereotypically

a traditionally masculine way.

prefer competence. To test their

masculine areas.

hypothesis, they designed the

Janet Taylor Spence

2003
Simon Baron-Cohen

Attitudes Toward Women Scale,

suggests the female brain is

which assesses attitudes toward

predominantly hardwired for

the roles and rights of women by

empathy, whereas the male

asking questions about education,

brain is hardwired for

marriage, professional life, habits,

understanding systems.

See also:
Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Guy Corneau 155 ■ Eleanor E. Maccoby 284–85 ■ Albert Bandura 286–91 ■ Simon Baron-Cohen 298–99

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 237

FLASHBULB

MEMORIES ARE FIRED

BY EVENTS OF HIGH

EMOTIONALITY

ROGER BROWN (1925–1997)

IN CONTEXT

APPROACH

I
n the late 1970s, Harvard

University professor Roger

Brown co-wrote a paper

called
Flashbulb Memories
that

Memory studies

became the classic study on a

BEFORE

memory phenomenon. Brown and

his colleague, James Kulik, coined

1890
William James makes a

this term to refer to a special kind

distinction between short-term

of autobiographical memory in

(primary) memory and long-

which people give a highly detailed,

term (secondary) memory.

vivid account of the exact moment

1932
Frederic Bartlett’s

that they learned about an event

studies show that recollective

with a high shock value.

memory is not simply a matter

The paper argues that culturally

of retrieval; it is an active

and personally significant events,

reconstruction of past events.

such as the shooting of J.F. Kennedy

The assassination
of President

or Martin Luther King, trigger the

John F. Kennedy in 1963
was shocking

AFTER

operation of a special biological

and culturally significant. Brown

1982
US psychologist Ulric

claims these kinds of events cause

memory mechanism (“now print”)

Neisser argues that flashbulb

the formation of “flashbulb” memories.

that creates a permanent record of

memories do not use a special

the event and the circumstances in

mechanism and can be

which we first become aware of it.

However, researchers such as Ulric

inaccurate due to multiple

Almost like a flash photograph, we

Neisser have contested the special

“rehearsals” after the event.

can picture where we were, who we

mechanism theory, suggesting that

were with, and what we were doing

1987
In
Autobiographical

the memories’ durability stems from

when we heard the shocking

Memory,
American

the fact that they are thought about

news—such as the destruction of

psychologist David Rubin

(or rehearsed) repeatedly after the

the twin towers on 9/11. Brown and

event, by the individual and the

suggests that we remember

Kulik claim these memories are

wider world, and so are continually

landmark events that define

vivid, accurate, and enduring.

reinforced within memory. ■

us as people.

See also:
William James 38–45 ■ Jerome Bruner 164–65 ■ Endel Tulving 186–91

■ Frederic Bartlett 335–36 ■ Ulric Neisser 339

238

THE GOAL IS

NOT TO ADVANCE

KNOWLEDGE, BUT

TO BE IN THE KNOW

SERGE MOSCOVICI (1925– )

IN CONTEXT

We overhear something

This
merges
with other

APPROACH

that
arouses our

things we know or

Social constructivism

curiosity
.

have experienced.

BEFORE

1807
German philosopher

Georg Hegel says that our

ideas and values are fashioned

by the
zeitgeist
, or spirit of the

Everyone is eager to

age, which constantly changes

We chatter about this

transmit knowledge and

through the reconciliation of

with other people and

keep a place in the circle

opposing views.

share our thoughts
.

of conversation
.

1927
German physicist Werner

Heisenberg’s “Uncertainty

Principle” reveals that the

observer affects the observed.

1973
American psychologist

The
collective

Attitudes become

Kenneth Gergen writes
Social

conversations
continue,

organized and
values

Psychology as History
, which

allowing everyone

become established
.

marks the emergence of

to know more.

social constructivism.

AFTER