The Psychology Book (73 page)

that a person experiences in the

explanations of human behavior

effect,” which is arguably his best-

presence of something familiar.

on environmental factors. However,

known contribution to the field of

However, Titchener’s hypothesis

the Polish-born psychologist Robert

social psychology.

was rejected at the time, and the

Zajonc believed that to develop a

idea faded into relative obscurity.

more complete understanding, it

Familiarity experiments

Zajonc’s interest in the effect

is necessary to take into account

Mere exposure, Zajonc explained,

was aroused by a newspaper article

the functions of the mind as well.

simply refers to a condition in

that described a curious experiment

Zajonc’s main interest was in the

which the given stimulus is

that took place at Oregon State

relationship between feeling and

accessible to the subject’s

University in 1967. The article

thought—the intersection of

perception, either consciously or

stated that a “mysterious student”

emotion and cognition—and he

subconsciously. The effects of mere

had been attending class for two

devoted much of his career toward

exposure had been documented

months, enveloped in a black bag.

exploring which of these factors has

previously by the psychologist

The professor, Charles Goetzinger,

a stronger influence on behavior. To

Edward B. Titchener who, in

knew the identity of the person

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 233

See also:
Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ Edward B. Titchener 334 ■ Stanley Schachter 338

Zajonc’s 1968 experiment

tested the mere exposure

effect by showing people

slides of symbols with

uneven rates of repetition;

the more frequently someone

saw a symbol, the more

they claimed to like it.

inside, but none of the class had any

This increases with exposure: the

affectionate feeling is not based

idea who it might be. Goetzinger

greater your number of exposures

on reasoned judgement. This is

then observed the class to gauge

to something, the more affection

contrary to what most of us might

their reactions over time. Initially,

you will feel toward it. To put it

imagine to be the case.

the students treated the black bag

simply, “the more you see it, the

In a paper called
Feeling and

with hostility, but this softened in

more you like it.”

Thinking
, written in 1980, Zajonc

time and they were eventually

Researchers into the mere

argued that feelings and thoughts

friendly and even protective toward

exposure phenomenon since Zajonc’s

are actually very independent of

the person in the bag. Goetzinger

experiment have found that it is

one another. Feelings not only

noted that the students’ attitude

even possible to re-create this effect

precede thoughts during a person’s

gradually “changed from hostility

using sound rather than images. In

complex response to a stimulus,

toward the black bag to curiosity

1974, the social psychologist D.W.

but are actually the most powerful

and finally to friendship.”

Rajecki used fertile chicken eggs

determinants of a person’s attitudes

Zajonc’s groundbreaking paper,

as test subjects, playing tones of

and decisions. This paper was widely

Attitudinal Effects of Mere Exposure
,

different frequencies to different

debated, and it helped to bring

was published in
The Journal of

groups of eggs before they hatched,

the study of emotion back to the

Personality and Social Psychology

and then playing these tones to

forefront of Western psychology,

in 1968. Zajonc’s paper describes a

both groups of chicks again after

in part because the theory bears ❯❯

series of experiments in which he

hatching. Without exception, the

showed participants a sequence of

chicks preferred the tones that had

random images—geometric shapes,

been played to them prenatally.

Chinese symbols, paintings, and

pictures of faces—that were flashed

Preferences are not rational

in front of them so rapidly that they

Zajonc’s findings indicate that this

were unable to discern which were

preference for familiar things is

Novelty is commonly

shown repeatedly. When subjects

based purely on the history of

associated with

were later asked which images they

exposure to it, and is not affected

uncertainty and conflict—

preferred, they consistently chose

by a person’s expressed personal

states that are more

the ones to which they had been

beliefs or attitudes. This holds true

likely to produce negative

most frequently exposed, although

even when exposures take place

than positive affect.

they were not consciously aware of

only on the subliminal level, when

Robert Zajonc

this fact. What Zajonc seemed to

subjects are completely unaware

have discovered was that familiarity

that they are being presented with

brings about an attitude change,

a stimulus. This discovery led to

breeding affection or some form of

Zajonc’s claim that “preferences

preference for the familiar stimulus.

need no inferences,” meaning that

234 ROBERT ZAJONC

The advertising industry

has always attributed to

exposure formidable

advertising potential.

Robert Zajonc

Repeated exposure to a brand

can create a liking for it, even when

it is presented without any factual

information and requires no decision-

making from the person viewing it.

important implications for the study

have already made, rather than

effect,” the way we tend to form

of decision-making processes. It

actually serving to inform the

friendships or romantic relationships

suggests that, contrary to what we

choice in the first place.

with people we see regularly. One

may believe, it is not reason and

Zajonc concludes that “affect

explanation for this focuses on

logic that guide our decisions; in

is always present as a companion

evolution: when animals are

fact, we make fast, instinctive,

to thought, whereas the converse

exposed to something for the first

emotion-based decisions before we

is not true for cognition.” We can

time, they often respond with fear

have even had a chance to consider

never think about something

and aggression, but repeated

the choice cognitively—we make

without a feeling attached; as

exposures—during which the

judgments without information. If

Zajonc says, we do not just see

animal realizes the perceived threat

this is true, it follows that our

“a house,” we see “a handsome

does not materialize—lead to a

logical reasoning merely justifies

house” or “a pretentious house.”

reduction in negative responses.

and rationalizes the decisions we

Every perception we have contains

Zajonc explored this notion further

some affect, or feeling. The primacy

with human subjects, discovering

of affect over cognition is also

that people form very negative

apparent in memory, he says, as

attitudes toward an imaginary

Frederick Bartlett noted in his book,

group of unfamiliar people,

Remembering
: “When a subject is

attributing unpleasant qualities

being asked to remember, very

to them for no apparent reason

The form of experience

often the first thing that emerges is

other than the fact that they are

that we came to call

something of the nature of attitude.”

complete strangers. However, as

“feeling” accompanies

with shapes and symbols, repeated

all cognitions.

Interpersonal attraction

exposure is shown to increase

Robert Zajonc

The impact of the mere exposure

trust and affection.

effect extends beyond the confines

Another explanation for the

of the laboratory, and out into the

propinquity effect focuses on

area of interpersonal attraction. In

the many factors involved in

this context, the phenomenon is

interpersonal attraction, which

referred to as the “propinquity

include familiarity, similarity of

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 235

attitudes, physical attraction, and

colleagues, he conducted a study

reciprocal affection. Frequent

to find out whether the faces of

interactions between people may

spouses appear more similar after

not only increase the level of

25 years together. They compared

familiarity, but also provide an

photographs of couples taken

increasing impression of similarity,

during their first year of marriage

thereby breeding positive feelings

with those taken 25 years later,

and ultimately attraction.

and found that couples looked more

alike after many years of being

Exposure and advertising

together. After ruling out several

Advertising is another arena in

other potential explanations, the

which the mere exposure effect

researchers decided that empathy

plays a crucial role, although the

was the most likely cause. Time

picture here is less clear. Research

had increased the couple’s empathy

Robert Zajonc

seems to suggest that repeated

for each other, and since human

exposure to a brand or corporate

emotion is communicated through

Robert Zajonc was born in

Lodz, Poland. When he was

name would boost sales, but this

facial expressions, they may have

16 his family fled to Warsaw

assumption is evidently overly