The New Penguin History of the World (222 page)

Amarna,
84

Amboyna, spice trade base at,
636

Ambrose, St (
c.
340–97), bishop of Milan,
295
–6,
297

Amenemhet I, king of Egypt (
c.
2000–1970
BC
),
82

Amenhotep III, king of Egypt (
c.
1411–1375
BC
),
84

Amenhotep IV
see
Akhnaton

America
see
Central America; North America; South America; West Indies; individual states

American Revolution,
720
–1

issues,
721
–9

war,
723
–4

constitution,
724
–9

Declaration of Independence,
723

domestic divisions,
724
–7

France and,
723
,
729

Amon-Re, Egyptian god,
76
,
83
,
84

Amorites,
61
,
64
,
113

Amos (8th cent.
BC
), Hebrew prophet,
114

Amsterdam,
552
,
556
,
564
,
665

Anabaptists,
577

anarchists,
866

Anatolia,
32
,
50
,
54
,
91
,
95

Hittites in,
47
,
61
,
64
,
106
–7

Huns in,
293

Arabs and,
354

Seljuks in,
374

in Ottoman empire,
387

see also
Ottoman empire; Turkey

Anaximander (610–547
BC
), Greek philosopher,
202

Angi (Aryan god),
124

Anglican Church

development,
579
–80

dissenters,
587

Anglo-Persian Oil Company,
944

Angola,
825
,
827
,
977
,
1078

animals

domesticated, earliest,
33

in India,
121
,
127
,
128
–9,
425

in Europe, early medieval,
417

in S. America,
487

species spread by Europeans,
671

selective breeding,
705

in World War I,
894

see also
horses; rabbits

Anna Ivanovna (1693–1740), tsarina of Russia (1730–40),
623

Annan, Kofi (1938–) UN General Secretary,
1176

Antignoid dynasty of Macedon,
218

Antiochus IV, king of Syria (175–164
BC
),
262
–3

anti-Semitism

medieval,
505
–6,
518

early modern,
556

Nazi,
954
,
988

Antoninus Pius (86–161), Roman Emperor (138–61),
247

Antony, St (
c.
250–350), Christian hermit,
310
–11

Antwerp,
556
,
561
,
584

Anu, sumerian god,
55
,
64

apartheid,
1077
–80

Aphrodite, female deity,
99
,
177
. Apollo, Greek god,
175

see also
Delphi

Apollonius of Tyana (fl.
AD
50), Greek philosopher,
256

Aquinas, St Thomas (
c.
1226–74), Christian philosopher,
523
,
537
,
539
,
545

Arab League, formation,
988

Arabs

conquests under Islam,
325
,
330
–1

nomadic pastoralists,
325

empires,
333
–44

Islamic civilization,
338
–41,
406

in Europe,
341
–2,
403

in India,
434

sources for early Africa,
480

European trade rivalry,
634
,
635

World War I and,
894

national states emerge,
935
–44

Israel and,
988
–90,
1065
–9,
1071
,
1126
,
1130

oil and,
1066
,
1067
,
1117

Pan-arabism,
1066

national states and nationalism in,
1123

see also
Islam; Umayyads; wars (Arab-Israeli); individual states

Arafat, Yassir (1929–2004), Palestinian resistance leader,
1170

Aramaeans,
115

Archimedes (
c.
287–212
BC
), Greek mathematician,
220
,
221
,
237
–8,
683

architecture

Mesopotamian models,
50
,
63

Egyptian organization,
71
,
73

in ancient China,
147

megaliths,
156
–7

Greeks set standards,
209
–10

Roman technical skill,
251

Islamic,
340

Taj Mahal,
440

ecclesiastical,
495
–6

see also
building

Ardashir I (Artaxerxes), king of Persia (224–40),
280
,
317
,
318
,
428

Argentina

expansion of food production,
708
,
802
,
894

Indians in,
802

dictatorship in,
1089
–90

Falklands War,
1111
–2

nuclear weapons,
1090

Argos,
102

Aristarchus of Samos (
c.
310–264
BC
), Greek astronomer,
221

aristocracy
see
political institutions

Aristophanes (
c.
448–380
BC
), Greek comedian,
209

Aristotle (384–322
BC
), Greek philosopher,
416
,
523

collected data,
201
,
205

on Pythagoras,
203

influence,
205
–6,
221
,
339

on city-state,
206
,
221

founder of deductive logic,
206

tutor of Alexander,
216

medieval prestige,
523
,
537

Arius (
c.
256–336), Arianism, Christian heresy of,
288
,
296
,
304
,
313

Armenia

Alexander and,
218

Romans and,
248

focus of conflict,
279

Persian conquest,
280
,
317

Arabs in,
353

and Mongols,
379
,
383

Russian gains in,
814

1923 settlement,
941

in USSR,
1140

Arminius (17
BC
–
AD
21), Ger chieftain,
248

arms control,
1135
–6

Armstrong, Neil (1930–), on moon,
1020

Arascid dynasty of Parthia,
318

art

Palaeolithic,
23
–6,
36
–7

Sumerian,
56
,
60

Egyptian,
68
,
77
–8,
79

Chinese,
146
,
147
,
447
,
455
–7,
463
–4

Greek,
177
,
209
–10

Islamic,
340

court arts in Japan,
471
–2

in black Africa,
481

Renaissance Europe,
540
–1

changing 20th-cent. patterns,
946
–7

see also
painting; pottery; sculpture

Artaxerxes
see
Ardashir I

Arthur (6th cent.), legendary Romano-British king,
301
,
505
,
520

Aryan peoples

in India,
123
–9

in Persia,
161

Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria (668–626
BC
),
105
,
116
,
160

Asia Minor

Mycanaean colonies,
101

Achaeans in,
103
,
107

Hittites in,
106
–7

Greek cities,
184
–5

Alexandrine empire,
212
–13,
214
,
218

Romans in,
234
–6,
289

Byzantine empire and,
320
,
353
,
359

see also
individual areas

Asoka, Maurya emperor of India (264–228
BC
),
425
–6,
427

Assassins, Moslem sect,
379

Assur, Assyrian god,
116

Assyria/Assyrians,
64
,
50
,
64
–5

conquers Israel,
114

conquests in Mesopotamia,
115
–16

defeated,
116
–17

in Egypt,
151
,
160

Astarte, Semitic goddess,
99

astrology,
63
,
222
,
1030
,
1120

astronomy

Babylonian,
63

Egyptian,
74

Chinese,
140

and megaliths,
156

erroneous Greek theorizing,
203
–4

Arabic,
339

Ptolemaic primacy,
538
,
684

early modern scientific views,
683
–4

observatories,
879

Einstein and,
1014

see also
space

Athanasius (
c.
298–373), bishop of Alexandria, against Arianism
288

Athena, Greek goddess,
174

Athens

settled by Achaeans,
100
,
101

economy,
178
,
181
–2,
192
,
195
–6

government,
181
,
194
–9

against Persia,
185
–6

exploited Delian League,
188

Peloponnesian War and,
189
–90

social institutions,
193
–4,
210

cultural and political dominance,
195
–9,
220

atheism as impiety,
200

defeat by Macedon,
213
,
218

Atlantic Charter (1941),
960
,
978

atomic theory,
1013

Greek,
202

Aton, Egyptian god,
77
,
84

Attalid dynasty of Pergamon,
218
,
238

Attica,
100
,
102
,
180
,
181
,
186
,
192

see also
Athens

Attila (
c.
406–53), Hun chieftain,
293
,
313

Augsburg, Peace of (1530),
577
,
603
,
604

Augustine

St (354–430), bishop of Hippo, Christian philosopher,
297
–300,
318
,
400
,
540

St (d. 604), archbishop of Canterbury,
313

Augustus (63
BC
-
AD
14), first Roman emperor(27
BC
-
AD
14)

maintained republican forms,
245
,
276

rise to power,
245
–6