The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (110 page)

al-‘Arsh
(the throne of God)
:

see
KURS
.

 
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(873–935 (AH 260–324)).
Foremost Muslim theologian, who is often regarded as the founder of
kal
m
. In early life, he was a
Mu‘tazilite
, but he became doubtful about the power of human reason to solve theological problems when he raised the issue of the condemnation of those whom God might have brought to death earlier (thus avoiding the deeds for which they were condemned). He moved more toward the
anbalites
and contested the arguments of the Mu‘tazilites, while using some of their methods. He insisted that the
Qur’
n
is uncreated (against the view that anything which appears in or through material form must be created). In affirming attributes of God (e.g. the hand of God), al-Ash‘ar
held that they are truly posited (they are not metaphors), but that it is impossible to say in exactly what way they pertain to God—thus producing the famous formula,
bil
kaif(a)
, ‘without knowing how’. He also dealt with the problem of how humans can be accountable for their actions if God determines all things, by developing the doctrine of acquisition (
kasb
, see
QADAR
): God creates all possibilities, but humans acquire a particular act in the action itself. Among many works, he wrote
al-Ib
nah ‘an U
l al-Diy
nah
(Discourse on the Foundations of Religion) and
Maq
l
t al-Isl
miyy
n
(The Treatises of the Islamic Schools).