The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (171 page)

Read The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined Online

Authors: Steven Pinker

Tags: #Sociology, #Psychology, #Science, #Amazon.com, #21st Century, #Crime, #Anthropology, #Social History, #Retail, #Criminology

BOOK: The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined
3.62Mb size Format: txt, pdf, ePub
135. Recent selection in humans: Akey, 2009, p. 717.
136. Selective breeding of aggression in mice: Cairns, Gariépy, & Hood, 1990.
137. Measuring heritability: Plomin et al., 2008; Pinker, 2002, chap. 19.
138. Danish adoption study: Mednick, Gabrielli, & Hutchings, 1984.
139. Measures of aggression correlate with violent crime: Caspi et al., 2002; Guo, Roettger, & Cai, 2008b.
140. Heritability of aggression: Plomin et al., 2008, chap. 13; Bouchard & McGue, 2003; Eley, Lichtenstein, & Stevenson, 1999; Ligthart et al., 2005; Lykken, 1995; Raine, 2002; Rhee & Waldman, 2007; Rowe, 2002; Slutske et al., 1997; van Beijsterveldt, Bartels, Hudziak, & Boomsma, 2003; van den Oord, Boomsma, & Verhulst, 1994.
141. Aggression in separated twins: Bouchard & McGue, 2003, table 6.
142. Aggression in adoptees: van den Oord et al., 1994; see also Rhee & Waldman, 2007.
143. Aggression in twins: Cloninger & Gottesman, 1987; Eley et al., 1999; Ligthart et al., 2005; Rhee & Waldman, 2007; Slutske et al., 1997; van Beijsterveldt et al., 2003.
144. Meta-analysis of behavioral genetics of aggression: Rhee & Waldman, 2007.
145. Violent crime in twins: Cloninger & Gottesman, 1987.
146. Pedomorphy and self-domestication: Wrangham, 2009b; Wrangham & Pilbeam, 2001.
147. Heritability of gray matter distribution: Thompson et al., 2001.
148. Heritability of white matter connectivity: Chiang et al., 2009.
149. Making voles monogamous: McGraw & Young, 2010.
150. Testosterone and aggressive challenges: Archer, 2006b; Dabbs & Dabbs, 2000.
151. Testosterone receptor variation: Rajender et al., 2008; Roney, Simmons, & Lukaszewski, 2009.
152. MAO-A knockout and violence in humans: Brunner et al., 1993.
153. MAO-A variants and aggression: Alia-Klein et al., 2008; Caspi et al., 2002; Guo, Ou, Roettger, & Shih, 2008a; Guo et al., 2008b; McDermott et al., 2009; Meyer-Lindenberg, 2006.
154. MAO-A specific to violence: N. Alia-Klein, quoted in Holden, 2008, p. 894; Alia-Klein et al., 2008.
155. Effects of MAO-A depend on experience: Caspi et al., 2002; Guo et al., 2008b.
156. Modulating factor for MAO-A may be other genes: Harris, 2006; Guo et al., 2008b, p. 548.
157. Selection of MAO-A gene: Gilad, 2002.
158. Dopamine receptor & transporter genes: Guo et al., 2008b; Guo, Roettger, & Shih, 2007.
159. No evidence cited of recent selection of genes for behavior: Cochran & Harpending, 2009. See also Wade, 2006.
160. Warrior Gene furor: Holden, 2008; Lea & Chambers, 2007; Merriman & Cameron, 2007.
161. Problems for the Warrior Gene hypothesis: Merriman & Cameron, 2007.
162. Failure to replicate MAO-A–violence link in nonwhites: Widom & Brzustowicz, 2006.
163. “Genetically Capitalist?”: Clark, 2007b, p. 1. See also Clark, 2007a, p. 187.
164. Problems for Genetically Capitalist theory: Betzig, 2007; Bowles, 2007; Pomeranz, 2008.
165. Morality as a matter of fact: Harris, 2010; Nagel, 1970; Railton, 1986; Sayre-McCord, 1988.
166. Moralized versus nonmoralized preferences: Haidt, 2002; Rozin, 1997; Rozin et al., 1997.
167. Moral rationalization: Bandura, 1999; Baumeister, 1997.
168. Unjustified norms in moral development: Kohlberg, 1981.
169. Moral dumbfounding: Haidt, 2001.
170. Cross-culturally recurring moral themes: Fiske, 1991; Haidt, 2007; Rai & Fiske, 2011; Shweder et al., 1997.
171. Three ethics: Shweder et al., 1997.
172. Five foundations: Haidt, 2007.
173. Four relational models: Fiske, 1991, 1992, 2004a, 2004b; Haslam, 2004; Rai & Fiske, 2011.
174. Ritual gift exchange: Mauss, 1924/1990.
175. Harm/Care judgments track Fairness/Reciprocity judgments: Haidt, 2007.
176. Why Harm/Care to strangers equals Fairness/Reciprocity: Axelrod, 1984/2006; Trivers, 1971.
177. Extension of Market Pricing to formal institutions: Pinker, 2007b, chaps. 8 & 9; Lee & Pinker, 2010; Pinker et al., 2008; Pinker, 2010.
178. Rational-Legal reasoning and Market Pricing: Fiske, 1991, pp. 435, 47; Fiske, 2004b, p. 17.
179. Grammar of social and moral norms: Fiske, 2004b.
180. Nonmoralized social norms: Fiske, 2004b.
181. Norms in Shasta County: Ellickson, 1991.
182. Not “getting” social norms: Fiske & Tetlock, 1999; Tetlock, 1999.
183. Sacred values and the psychology of taboo: Fiske & Tetlock, 1999; Tetlock, 1999; Tetlock et al., 2000.
184. Rationale for taboos: Fiske & Tetlock, 1999; Tetlock, 2003.
185. Reframing taboo tradeoffs: Fiske & Tetlock, 1997; McGraw & Tetlock, 2005; Tetlock, 1999, 2003.
186. Life insurance: Zelizer, 2005.
187. Cultural differences in relational models: Fiske, 1991, 1992, 2004a; Rai & Fiske, 2011.
188. Political ideologies and relational models: Fiske & Tetlock, 1999; McGraw & Tetlock, 2005; Tetlock, 2003.
189. Moral foundations and the liberal-conservative culture war: Haidt, 2007; Haidt & Graham, 2007; Haidt & Hersh, 2001.
190. Logic of humor: Koestler, 1964; Pinker, 1997, chap. 8.
191. Relational models and violence: Fiske, 1991, pp. 46–47, 130–33.
192. Null/asocial relational model: Fiske, 2004b.
193. Two kinds of dehumanization: Haslam, 2006.
194. Criminal justice as in-kind retribution: Carlsmith et al., 2002; see also Sargent, 2004.
195. Rational-Legal reasoning, Market Pricing, and utilitarianism: Rai & Fiske, 2011; Fiske, 1991, p. 47; McGraw & Tetlock, 2005.
196. Historical shift from Community Sharing to Market Pricing: Fiske & Tetlock, 1997, p. 278, note 3.
197. Liberals and conservatives: Haidt, 2007; Haidt & Graham, 2007; Haidt & Hersh, 2001.
198. We are all liberals now: Courtwright, 2010; Nash, 2009.
199. Market Pricing and utilitarianism: Rai & Fiske, 2011; Fiske, 1991, p. 47; McGraw & Tetlock, 2005.
200. Grammar of relational models: Fiske, 2004b; Fiske & Tetlock, 1999; Rai & Fiske, 2011.
201. Taboo, sacred values, and the Israel-Palestine conflict: Ginges et al., 2007.
202. Red counties and blue counties: Haidt & Graham, 2007; see also
http://elections.nytimes.com/2008/results/president/map.html
.
203. Communal Sharing implies the group is eternal: Fiske, 1991, p. 44.
204. Hierarchy and history writing: Brown, 1988.
205. Nationalism and potted histories: Bell, 2007b; Scheff, 1994; Tyrrell, 2007; van Evera, 1994.
206. The word
dumbth
was coined by Steve Allen.
207. Blaming the Enlightenment for the Holocaust: See Menschenfreund, 2010. Examples from the left include Zygmunt Bauman, Michel Foucault, and Theodor Adorno; examples from defenders of religion include Dinesh D’Souza in
What’s so great about Christianity?
and theoconservatives such as Richard John Neuhaus; see Linker, 2007.
208. Historiometry: Simonton, 1990.
209. Intelligence, openness, and performance of U.S. presidents: Simonton, 2006.
210. Bush third-lowest among presidents: C-SPAN 2009 Historians presidential leadership survey, C-SPAN, 2010; J. Griffin & N. Hines, “Who’s the greatest? The Times U.S. presidential rankings,”
New York Times
, Mar. 24, 2010; Siena Research Institute, 2010.
211. Neither the best nor the brightest: Nixon is ranked 38th, 27th, and 30th among the 42 presidents in the historians’ polls cited in note 210, and 25th in intelligence; see Simonton, 2006, table 1, p. 516, column I-C (chosen because the IQ numbers are the most plausible).
212. The correlation and slope estimates are from a statistical analysis where battle deaths for all war-years in which the United States was a primary or secondary participant were regressed against the president’s IQ. Battle deaths are the “Best Estimate” figures from the PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset (Lacina, 2009); IQ estimates from Simonton, 2006, table 1, p. 516, column I-C.
213. Rationality and the Holocaust: Menschenfreund, 2010.
214. Emotional dog and rational tail: Haidt, 2001. Moral reasoning and moral intuition: Pizarro & Bloom, 2003.
215. Moral intuition and moral reasoning in the brain: Greene, in press; Greene et al., 2001.
216. Reason as slave of the passions: Hume, 1739/2000, p. 266.
217. Correlation of intelligence with self-control: Burks et al., 2009; Shamosh & Gray, 2008. Self-control and intelligence in the brain: Shamosh et al., 2008.
218. Emotional reaction to other races: Phelps et al., 2000.
219. Relational models, mathematical scales, and cognition: Fiske, 2004a.
220. Sadistic puppeteers: Gottschall, 2008.
221. Godwin: Quoted in Singer, 1981/2011, pp. 151–52.
222. Logic of morality: Nagel, 1970; Singer, 1981/2011.
223. Systematicity of reasoning: Fodor & Pylyshyn, 1988; Pinker, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2007b.
224. Expanding circle: Singer, 1981/2011.
225. Escalator of reason: Singer, 1981/2011, pp. 88, 113–14.
226. Greek epitaph: Quoted in Singer, 1981/2011, p. 112.
227. Outstanding thinkers: Singer, 1981/2011, pp. 99–100.
228. Flynn’s Eureka: Flynn, 1984; Flynn, 2007.
229. Rising IQ around the world: Flynn, 2007, p. 2; Flynn, 1987.
230. Naming the Flynn Effect: Herrnstein & Murray, 1994.
231. Thirty countries: Flynn, 2007, p. 2.
232. Flynn Effect began in 1877: Flynn, 2007, p. 23.
233. Adult of 1910 would be retarded today: Flynn, 2007, p. 23.
234. Scientists’ consensus on intelligence: Deary, 2001; Gottfredson, 1997a; Neisser et al., 1996. Intelligence as a predictor of life success: Gottfredson, 1997b; Herrnstein & Murray, 1994.
235. Flynn Effect uncorrelated with testing fads: Flynn, 2007, p. 14.
236. Flynn Effect not in math, vocabulary, knowledge: Flynn, 2007; Greenfield, 2009. See also Wicherts et al., 2004.
237. Slight declines in SAT: Flynn, 2007, p. 20; Greenfield, 2009.
238. General intelligence: Deary, 2001; Flynn, 2007; Neisser et al., 1996.
239. Heritability of intelligence, lack of family influence: Bouchard & McGue, 2003; Harris, 1998/ 2008; Pinker, 2002; Plomin et al., 2008; Turkheimer, 2000.
240. General intelligence and the brain: Chiang et al., 2009; Deary, 2001; Thompson et al., 2001.
241. Flynn Effect not from hybrid vigor: Flynn, 2007, pp. 101–2. Flynn Effect not from gains in health and nutrition: Flynn, 2007, pp. 102–6.
242. Flynn Effect not in
g:
Flynn, 2007; Wicherts et al., 2004.
243. Visual complexity and IQ: Greenfield, 2009.
244. Prescientific versus postscientific reasoning: Flynn, 2007. See also Neisser, 1976; Tooby & Cosmides, in press; Pinker, 1997, pp. 302–6.
245. Dogs and rabbits: Flynn, 2007, p. 24.
246. Dialogues on similarity and hypotheticals: Cole, Gay, Glick, & Sharp, 1971; Luria, 1976; Neisser, 1976.
247. Schooling and formal operations: Flynn, 2007, p. 32.
248. Increases in schooling: Flynn, 2007, p. 32.
249. Reading comprehension: Rothstein, 1998, p. 19.
250. Changes in school tests: Genovese, 2002.
251. Shorthand abstractions: All of these terms increased in frequency during the 20th century, according to analyses of Google Books by the Bookworm program: Michel et al., 2011; see the caption to figure 7–1.
252. “on account of the economy”: G. Nunberg, Language commentary segment on
Fresh Air
, National Public Radio, 2001.
253. Concrete operations in Flynn’s father: J. Flynn, “What is intelligence: Beyond the Flynn effect,” Harvard Psychology Department Colloquium, Dec. 5, 2007; see also “The world is getting smarter,”
Economist/Intelligent Life
, Dec. 2007;
http://moreintelligentlife.com/node/654
.
254. Difficulty with proportions: Flynn, 2007, p. 30.
255. Thinking people are less punitive: Sargent, 2004.
256. “cultural renaissance”: Flynn, 1987, p. 187.
257. “squalid savages”: Roosevelt,
The winning of the West
(Whitefish, Mont.: Kessinger), vol. 1, p. 65. “Dead Indians”: Quoted in Courtwright, 1996, p. 109.
258. Woodrow Wilson’s racism: Loewen, 1995, pp. 22–31.

Other books

The Suspect's Daughter by Donna Hatch
The Saturdays by Elizabeth Enright
The Hell of It by Peter Orullian
Spike by Jennifer Ryder
(2005) Rat Run by Gerald Seymour
High Treason by John Gilstrap
A Case of Spirits by Peter; Peter Lovesey Lovesey