The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (170 page)

Read The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined Online

Authors: Steven Pinker

Tags: #Sociology, #Psychology, #Science, #Amazon.com, #21st Century, #Crime, #Anthropology, #Social History, #Retail, #Criminology

BOOK: The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined
4.32Mb size Format: txt, pdf, ePub
8. Meanings of
empathy:
Batson, Ahmad, Lishmer, & Tsang, 2002; Hoffman, 2000; Keen, 2007; Preston & de Waal, 2002.
9. James on sympathy and fox terriers: James, 1977.
10. Senses of empathy: Batson et al., 2002; Hoffman, 2000; Keen, 2007; Preston & de Waal, 2002.
11. Empathy as mind-reading: Baron-Cohen, 1995.
12. Dissociability of reading thoughts and emotions: Blair & Perschardt, 2002.
13. Psychopaths read but don’t feel emotions: Hare, 1993; Mealey & Kinner, 2002.
14. Empathy versus distress at others’ suffering: Batson et al., 2002.
15. Emotional contagion: Preston & de Waal, 2002.
16. Sympathy not the same as contagion: Bandura, 2002.
17. Discovery of mirror neurons: di Pellegrino, Fadiga, Fogassi, Gallese, & Rizzolatti, 1992.
18. Possible mirror neurons in humans: Iacoboni et al., 1999.
19. Mirror mania: Iacoboni, 2008; J. Lehrer, “Built to be fans,”
Seed
, Feb. 10, 2006, pp. 119–20; C. Buckley, “Why our hero leapt onto the tracks and we might not,”
New York Times
, Jan. 7, 2007; S. Vedantam, “How brain’s ‘mirrors’ aid our social understanding,”
Washington Post
, Sept. 25, 2006.
20. Mirror neurons as DNA: Ramachandran, 2000.
21. Nasty macaques: McCullough, 2008, p. 125.
22. Empathy in the brain: Lamm, Batson, & Decety, 2007; Moll, de Oliveira-Souza, & Eslinger, 2003; Moll, Zahn, de Oliveira-Souza, Krueger, & Grafman, 2005.
23. Skepticism about mirror neurons: Csibra, 2008; Alison Gopnik, 2007; Hickok, 2009; Hurford, 2004; Jacob & Jeannerod, 2005.
24. Overlap in insula: Singer et al., 2006; Wicker et al., 2003.
25. No overlap in insula when feeling revenge: Singer et al., 2006.
26. Counterempathy in competition: Lanzetta & Englis, 1989.
27. Empathy in the brain: Lamm et al., 2007.
28. Atlas of empathy: Damasio, 1994; Lamm et al., 2007; Moll et al., 2003; Moll et al., 2005; Raine, 2008.
29. Oxytocin: Pfaff, 2007.
30. Maternal care as precursor to sympathy: Batson et al., 2002; Batson, Lishner, Cook, & Sawyer, 2005.
31. Oxytocin induces trust: Kosfeld et al., 2005; Zak, Stanton, Ahmadi, & Brosnan, 2007.
32. Cuteness: Lorenz, 1950/1971.
33. Babies exploit cuteness response: Hrdy, 1999.
34. Evolution of Mickey Mouse: Gould, 1980.
35. Dangerous Mick: B. Barnes, “After Mickey’s makeover, less Mr. Nice Guy,”
New York Times
, Nov. 4, 2009.
36. Baby-faced litigants: Zebrowitz & McDonald, 1991.
37. Ugly children punished more: Berkowitz & Frodi, 1979.
38. Unattractive adults judged more harshly: Etcoff, 1999.
39. Forgiveness, sympathy, guilt: Baumeister et al., 1994; Hoffman, 2000; McCullough, 2008; McCullough et al., 2010.
40. Communal versus exchange relationships: Baumeister et al., 1994; Clark, Mills, & Powell, 1986; Fiske, 1991; Fiske, 1992, 2004a.
41. Taboos in communal relationships: Fiske & Tetlock, 1997; McGraw & Tetlock, 2005.
42. Modicum of sympathy to strangers as default: Axelrod, 1984/2006; Baumeister et al., 1994; Trivers, 1971.
43. Toddlers aid and comfort people in distress: Warneken & Tomasello, 2007; Zahn-Waxler, Radke-Yarrow, Wagner, & Chapman, 1992.
44. Sympathy for those in need: Batson et al., 2005b.
45. Similarity matters: Preston & de Waal, 2002, p. 16; Batson, Turk, Shaw, & Klein, 1995c.
46. Shared traits and relief from shock: Krebs, 1975.
47. Empathy-altruism hypothesis: Batson & Ahmad, 2001; Batson et al., 2002; Batson, Ahmad, & Stocks, 2005a; Batson, Duncan, Ackerman, Buckley, & Birch, 1981; Batson et al., 1988; Krebs, 1975.
48. Psychological definition of altruism: Batson et al., 2002; Batson et al., 1981; Batson et al., 1988.
49. Evolutionary definition of altruism: Dawkins, 1976/1989; Hamilton, 1963; Maynard Smith, 1982.
50. Confusions about altruism: Pinker, 1997, chaps. 1, 6; Pinker, 2006.
51. Empathy-altruism hypotheses: Batson & Ahmad, 2001; Batson et al., 2002; Batson et al., 2005a; Batson et al., 1981; Batson et al., 1988.
52. Batson’s empathy-altruism research: Batson et al., 2002; Batson et al., 2005a.
53. Similarity, empathy, and ease of escape: Batson et al., 1981.
54. Empathy and social acceptability: Batson et al., 1988.
55. Empathy and a one-shot Prisoner’s Dilemma: Batson & Moran, 1999.
56. Empathy and an iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma: Batson & Ahmad, 2001.
57. Empathy from superordinate goals, and in conflict resolution workshops: Batson et al., 2005a, pp. 367–68; Stephan & Finlay, 1999.
58. Sympathy toward groups via perspective-taking: Batson et al., 1997.
59. Taking a victim’s perspective induces altruism: Batson et al., 1988.
60. Taking a victim’s perspective induces altruism toward group: Batson et al., 1997.
61. Sympathy for convicted murderers: Batson et al., 1997.
62. George Eliot on empathy through fiction: From “The natural history of German life,” quoted in Keen, 2007, p. 54.
63. Fiction as an empathy expander: Hunt, 2007; Mar & Oatley, 2008; Mar et al., 2006; Nussbaum, 1997, 2006.
64. Empathizers read fiction: Mar et al., 2006.
65. Confusing fact with fiction: Strange, 2002.
66. Empathy for a fictitious character and his group: Batson, Chang, Orr, & Rowland, 2008.
67. Fiction as a moral laboratory: Hakemulder, 2000.
68. The dark side of empathy: Batson et al., 2005a; Batson et al., 1995a; Batson, Klein, Highberger, & Shaw, 1995b; Prinz, in press.
69. Empathy subverts fairness: Batson et al., 1995b.
70. Empathy and public goods: Batson et al., 1995a.
71. Ephemeral benefits from empathy: Batson et al., 2005a, p. 373.
72. Utopia versus human nature: Pinker, 2002.
73. Burnout and fatigue from excess empathy: Batson et al., 2005a.
74. Lebanon war as a lapse of self-control: Mueller & Lustick, 2008.
75. The logic of self-control: Ainslie, 2001; Daly & Wilson, 2000; Kirby & Herrnstein, 1995; Schelling, 1978, 1984, 2006.
76. Ancestral versus modern discounting rates: Daly & Wilson, 1983, 2000, 2005; Wilson & Daly, 1997.
77. Myopic retirement planning: Akerlof, 1984; Frank, 1988.
78. Libertarian paternalism: Thaler & Sunstein, 2008.
79. Myopic discounting: Ainslie, 2001; Kirby & Herrnstein, 1995.
80. Hyperbolic discounting: Ainslie, 2001; Kirby & Herrnstein, 1995.
81. Hyperbolic discounting as composite of two mechanisms: Pinker, 1997, p. 396; Laibson, 1997.
82. Two selves: Schelling, 1984, p. 58.
83. Hot and cool brain systems: Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999.
84. Limbic grasshopper and frontal lobe ant: McClure, Laibson, Loewenstein, & Cohen, 2004.
85. Frontal lobes: Fuster, 2008.
86. Frontal lobes in temporal discounting: Shamosh et al., 2008.
87. Gage and his modern counterparts: Anderson et al., 1999; Damasio, 1994; Macmillan, 2000; Raine, 2008; Raine et al., 2000; Scarpa & Raine, 2007.
88. Cortical expansion during evolution: Hill et al., 2010.
89. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in cost-benefit analyses: Greene et al., 2001; McClure et al., 2004.
90. Frontal pole: Gilbert et al., 2006; Koechlin & Hyafil, 2007; L. Helmuth, “Brain model puts most sophisticated regions front and center,”
Science
,
302,
p. 1133.
91. Limbic and prefrontal responses in batterers: Lee, Chan, & Raine, 2008.
92. Importance of intelligence: Gottfredson, 1997a, 1997b; Neisser et al., 1996.
93. Marshmallow test: Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999; Mischel et al., in press.
94. Shallow discounting and life outcomes: Chabris et al., 2008; Duckworth & Seligman, 2005; Kirby, Winston, & Santiesteban, 2005.
95. Self-reports on self-control: Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004.
96. Benefits of self-control: Tangney et al., 2004.
97. Crime and self-control: Gottfredson, 2007; Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985.
98. Delay of gratification and aggression: Rodriguez, Mischel, & Shoda, 1989.
99. Teacher ratings of impulsiveness and aggressiveness: Dewall et al., 2007; Tangney et al., 2004.
100. Longitudinal study of temperament: Caspi, 2000. See also Beaver, DeLisi, Vaughn, & Wright, 2008.
101. Violent and nonviolent crimes correlated in New Zealand sample: Caspi et al., 2002.
102. Maturation of frontal lobes: Fuster, 2008, pp. 17–19.
103. Delay discounting doesn’t correlate with juvenile delinquency: Wilson & Daly, 2006.
104. Sensation-seeking peaks at eighteen: Romer, Duckworth, Sznitman, & Park, 2010.
105. Testosterone: Archer, 2006b.
106. Pushes and pulls in adolescent brains: Romer et al., 2010.
107. All psychological traits are heritable: Bouchard & McGue, 2003; Harris, 1998/2008; McCrae et al., 2000; Pinker, 2002; Plomin, DeFries, McClearn, & McGuffin, 2008; Turkheimer, 2000.
108. Self-control correlated with intelligence: Burks, Carpenter, Goette, & Rustichini, 2009; Shamosh & Gray, 2008. Self-control and intelligence in the frontal lobes: Shamosh et al., 2008.
109. Intelligence and committing crimes: Herrnstein & Murray, 1994; Neisser et al., 1996. Intelligence and getting murdered: Batty, Deary, Tengstrom, & Rasmussen, 2008.
110. Heritability of ADHD and links to crime: Beaver et al., 2008; Wright & Beaver, 2005.
111. Force dynamics metaphor and self-control: Talmy, 2000; Pinker, 2007b, chap. 4.
112. Fatiguing self-control: Baumeister et al., 1998; quote from p. 1254.
113. Ego depletion studies: Baumeister et al., 1998; Baumeister, Gailliot, Dewall, & Oaten, 2006; Dewall et al., 2007; Gailliot & Baumeister, 2007; Gailliot et al., 2007; Hagger, Wood, Stiff, & Chatzisarantis, 2010.
114. Self-control masks individual differences: Baumeister et al., 2006.
115. Self-control and male sexuality: Gailliot & Baumeister, 2007.
116. Ego depletion and violence: Dewall et al., 2007.
117. Heritability of height: Weedon & Frayling, 2008.
118. Odyssean self-control: Schelling, 1984, 2006.
119. Self-control strategies in children: Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999.
120. Discounting rate as an internal variable: Daly & Wilson, 2000, 2005; Wilson & Daly, 1997, 2006.
121. Self-control and glucose: Gailliot et al., 2007.
122. Alcohol and violence: Baumeister, 1997; Bushman, 1997. Nutritional supplements in prisons: J. Bohannon, “The theory? Diet causes violence. The lab? Prison,”
Science
,
325,
Sept. 25, 2009.
123. Exercising the will: Baumeister et al., 2006.
124. Fashions in self-control and dignity: Eisner, 2008; Wiener, 2004; Wouters, 2007.
125. Children’s interest rates: Clark, 2007a, p. 171.
126. Variation across cultures: Hofstede & Hofstede, 2010.
127. Long-term Orientation and homicide: The correlation between Long-Term Orientation and homicide rates across the 95 countries for which data are available is −0.325. The correlation between Indulgence and homicide is 0.25. Both are statistically significant. Long-Term Orientation and Indulgence scores are taken from
http://www.geerthofstede.nl/research-vsm/dimension-data-matrix.aspx
. Homicide data are the high estimates taken from
International homicide statistics
figures, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2009.
128. Lactose tolerance in adulthood: Tishkoff et al., 2006.
129. Yanomamö killers: Chagnon, 1988; Chagnon, 1997. Jivaro killers: Redmond, 1994.
130. Assumption of little recent evolutionary change: Pinker, 1997; Tooby & Cosmides, 1990a, 1990b.
131. Psychic unity of humankind: Brown, 1991, 2000; Tooby & Cosmides, 1990a, 1992.
132. Mechanics of natural selection: Maynard Smith, 1998.
133. Quantitative and single-gene evolution and evolutionary psychology: Tooby & Cosmides, 1990a.
134. Genomic tests of selection: Akey, 2009; Kreitman, 2000; Przeworski, Hudson, & Di Rienzo, 2000.

Other books

Climbing the Ladder by BA Tortuga
The Virgin Blue by Tracy Chevalier
An Autumn Crush by Milly Johnson
Harry Houdini Mysteries by Daniel Stashower
Rough Cut by Owen Carey Jones
Lionheart's Scribe by Karleen Bradford