Modern Times: The World From the Twenties to the Nineties (155 page)

67 Trotsky,
Collected Works
, II 202.

68 See Lenin,
Collected Works
, XXII 78.

69 Carr. op. cit., I 158, footnote 3;
The History of the Civil War in the USSR
, II (tr. London 1947), 599–601; J.Bunyan and H.H.Fisher,
The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–1918
(Stanford 1934), 297–8.

70 Carr, op. cit., 1157.

71 George Leggett,
The Cheka: Lenin’s Political Police
(Oxford 1981).

72 Solzhenitsyn, op. cit.

73 Carr, op. cit., I 158–9.

74 Ibid., 159.

75 Leggett, op. cit.

76 Lenin,
Collected Works
, XXII 166–7, 243, 449, 493.

77
Pravda
, 23 February 1918; Bunyan and Fisher, op. cit., 576.

78 Quoted in Leggett, op. cit.

79 Ibid.

80 Douglas Brown,
Doomsday 1917: the Destruction of Russia’s Ruling Class
(London 1975), 173–4.

81 A. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
(London 1974), 3 vols, I 28.

82 Quoted in Harrison Salisbury,
Black Night, White Snow: Russia’s Revolutions, 1905–1917
(London 1978), 565

83 Lenin,
Collected Works
, XXII 109–10.

84 Ibid., XXII 131–4.

85
Izvestiya
, 22 December 1917.

86 Carr, op. cit., I 117–18.

87 Ibid., 119 footnote 2, 120.

88 Holborn, op. cit., 490.

89 Gilbert, op. cit., iv 220.

90 J.M.Thompson,
Russia, Bolshevism and the Versailles Peace
(Princeton 1966).

91 Gilbert, op. cit., iv 225.

92 Ibid., 227, 278, 235, 275, 362–4.

93 Ibid., 257–9.

94 Ibid., 244, 228, 305–6, 261.

95 Ibid., 342, footnote 2.

96 Ibid., 316.

97 E.g., General Sir H. C.Holman’s telegram to Churchill of 8 January 1920, printed Gilbert, op. cit., iv 366–7.

98 Carr, op. cit., 1263ff., 291–305, and note B 410ff.

99 Stalin,
Collected Works
, iv 31–2.

100 Leon Trotsky,
Stalin
(New York 1946), 279.

101 Carr, op. cit., I 364.

102 Ibid., 380–409.

103 Ibid., 141.

104 Ibid., 143.

105 Bertrand Russell,
The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism
(London 1920), 26.

106 For the Kronstadt affair see Leonard Schapiro,
The Origin of the Communist Autocracy
(London 2nd ed., 1977), 301–14.

107 Lenin,
Collected Works
, XXVI 352.

108 Ibid., xxvi 208.

109 Carr, op. cit., 221–2.

110 Ibid., 205–8.

111 S.Liberman,
Building Lenin’s Russia
(Chicago 1945), 13.

112 Lydia Bach,
Le Droit et les Institutions de la Russie Soviétique
(Paris 1923), 48.

113 See George L. Yaney,
The
Systematization of Russian Government… 1711–1905
(Urbana, Illinois, 1973).

114 T. H. Rigby,
Lenin’s Government: Sovnarkom, 1917–1922
(Cambridge 1979), 230–5.

115 Shapiro, op. cit., 343.

116 Carr, op. cit., 1190 footnote 3.

117 Lenin,
Collected Works
, xxvi 227.

118 Quoted in Schapiro, op. cit., 320.

119 Rigby, op. cit., 236–7.

120 Schapiro, op. cit., 322; Carr, op. cit., 1204–5.

121 Carr, op. cit., 1213.

122
Lenin
,
The State and the Revolution
(1917)
.

123
Lenin
,
Collected Works
,
XXVII
239–40.

124 Ibid.,
XXVII
296.

125 Rigby, op. cit., 191–2.

126
Ronald
Hingley, Joseph Stalin:
Man and Legend
(London 1974), 141.

127 Schapiro, op. cit., 320.

128 Hingley, op. cit., 144–5.

129 Lincoln Steffens,
Autobiography
(New York 1931), 791–2; William
Bullitt
,
The Bullitt Mission to
Russia
(New York 1919).

130 Carr, op. cit., II 24.

131 Keep, op. cit., 261.

132
A. Moriset
,
Chez Lénine et Trotski
à Moscou
(Paris 1922), 240–2.

133 K. Marx,
Capital
, II chapter XVI;
Communist Manifesto; Critique of the Gotha Programme
.

134 Lenin,
Collected Works
, XXII 378.

135 Ibid., XXII 516–17. Lenin later dropped this reference to Peter the Great, the only time he ever openly compared himself to the Tsars.

136 Carr, op. cit., II 68.

137 Lenin,
Collected Works
, XXII 493.

138 Carr, op. cit., II 102–8.

139 Lenin,
Collected Works
, xx 417.

140 Carr, op. cit., II 109–10.

141 Ibid., 202 footnote 2.

142 Ibid., 209–10.

143 Legal enactments are:
Sobranie
Uzakonenii, 1919
,
No. 12 article
124; No. 20 article 235; No. 12 article 130 etc.

144 Carr, op. cit., II 212–13;
Izvestia
,
2 April 1920;
Sobranie Uzakonenii
1920
, No. 35 article 169.

145 Carr, op. cit., II 215–16.

146
Sobranie Uzakonenii, 1918
,
Article
11(e).

147
Lenin
,
Collected Works
,
XXII
356–7.

148 Ibid., xxvi 204.

149 For NEP see Carr, op. cit., II 273–82.

150 Lenin,
Collected Works
, XXVII 35.

151 Lenin,
Collected Works
, xxv 389, 491;
Pravda
, 22 February 1921.

152 Holborn, op. cit., 512–13, 526–32; Sebastian Haffner,
Failure
of a Revolution: Germany
1918–1919
(London 1973).

153 For Gömbös, see Carlile A.MacCartney,
October 15:
A History of Modern Hungary
1929–1945
, 2 vols (Edinburgh 1956).

154 David O.Roberts,
The Syndicalist
Tradition and Italian Fascism
(Manchester 1979).

155 Mussolini,
Opera Omnia
, XIII 170.

156 Nolte, op. cit., 10.

157 Mussolini,
Opera Omnia, III
206; v 67.

158 Luigi Barzini,
From Caesar to the
Mafia: sketches of Italian life
(London 1971), 139.

159 Figure given in Giordano Bruno
Guerri
,
Galeazzo Ciano: una vita
1903–1944
(Milan 1980).

160 G.d’Annunzio, ‘Il Trionfo della Norte’,
Prose di Romani
(Milan 1954), 1958.

161 Mussolini,
Opera Omnia
, vi 82; vi 248.

162 Ibid., xiv 60.

163 See Walter L. Adamson,
Hegemony and Revolution: Antonio Gramsci’s Political and Cultural Theory
(University of
California 1980).

164 Quoted in Angelo Tasca,
Nascita e
avvento del fascismo
(Florence
1950), 78.

165 For socialist violence, see Giorgio Alberto Chiurco,
Storia della
rivoluzione fascista, 5
vols
(Florence 1929-), II 78, 168.

166 Mussolini,
Opera Omnia
, xv 267.

167 Giorgio Rochat,
Italo Balbo:
aviatore e ministro dell’aeronautica, 1926–1933
(Bologna 1979).

168 Mussolini,
Opera Omnia
, xvi 31, xi 344, xvi 44, 276, 288, 241.

169 Tasca, op. cit., 276; Nolte, op. cit., 210–11.

170 Mussolini,
Opera Omnia
, XVIII 581.

171 The incident is described in Ivone
Kirkpatrick
,
Mussolini: Study of a
Demagogue
(London 1964), 144.

172 Mussolini,
Opera Omnia
, xix 196.

173 Gaetano Salvemini,
La Terreur Fasciste
(Paris 1930).

174 Mussolini,
Opera Omnia
, xx 379.

175 Ibid., XXII 109.

176 Ibid., XXIX 2.

177 Quoted in Roberts, op. cit., 301.

178 13th Plenary Session of the Executive Committee of the Communist International, December 1933; quoted in Nolte, op. cit.

179 Arthur Koestler, ‘Whereof one cannot speak’,
Kaleidoscope
(London 1981), 323 ff.

180 For the malaria problem, see Norman Douglas,
Old Calabria
(London 1915), chapter 34.

181 Sergio Romano,
Giuseppe Volpi:
Industria e finanza tra Giolitti e
Mussolini
(Milan 1979).

3 Waiting for Hitler

1 Adolf Hitler,
Mein Kampf
, 202–4; Joachim Fest,
Hitler
(tr. London 1977), 117.

2 Holborn, op. cit., 487.

3 Ibid., 561.

4 Ibid., 602.

5 Translated as F.Fischer,
Germany’s Aims in the First World
War
(London 1967).

6 For the Fischer controversy, see
Fritz Stern
,
The Failure of Il
liberalism
(London 1972); I
nternational Affairs
(1968)
.

7 J.Tampke, ‘Bismarck’s Social Legislation: a Genuine Breakthrough?’ in W.J.Mommsen
(ed.)
,
The Emergence of the Welfare State in Britain and Germany,-1850–1950
(London
1981), 71ff.

8
Fritz Fischer
,
The War of Illusions: German Policies from 1911 to
1914
(tr. London 1975).