Joy, Guilt, Anger, Love (51 page)

and opioids, 194, 199

and oxytocin, 231

and reward system of the brain,
189–190

dopaminergic system, 172

dorsal anterior cingulate cortex
(dACC), 121

dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), 57, 175

drugs, 193–195, 199

Duchenne, Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand, 9, 183–184

Duchenne smile, 184, 202, 206–207

Duse, Eleonora, 155–156, 161

Eagleman, David, 33–34, 37–38

ego (Freudian concept), 14–15, 71–72,
72
, 258n10

Einstein, Albert, 5

Eisenberger, Naomi, 121

electroencephalography (EEG), 201–202

embarrassment, 263n8

emoticons, 129, 273n32

emotional memory, 158, 278n27

emotional styles, 203, 284n39

emotions

evolutionary origins of, 9, 12

feelings compared to, 11, 128

fMRI imaging of, 69–71

good and bad emotions (
see
negative emotions; positive emotions)

historical attitudes toward, 13–15

as innate, 10

and memory, 51–52

and neuroanatomy, 16–18, 73

universality of, 11–12

See also
anger and aggression; anxiety; empathy; grief; guilt; joy and happiness; love

empathy, 145–177

and artwork, 148, 264n19

and mirror-neuron system, 149–153

as positive emotion, 11

term, 148

See also
theatre performances

endorphins, 195, 207

Enlightenment, 205, 206, 284n42

environment, 28–31, 101

Epicurus, 204

epigenetic modification, 235, 237

estrogen, 240, 242, 243

eudaimonia, 204–206, 212

evolution

of disgust, 49–50

emotions as outcome of, 9, 12

of guilt, 47, 55

of tears, 116–117

and Wittgenstein, 273n29

existential philosophy, 93–96

The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
(Darwin), 9–10

eyes and gaze, 171–172, 184, 211, 280n53

Fable of the Bees, or Private Vices, Public Benefits
(Mandeville), 205–206

facial expressions

of anger, 13

Darwin’s study of, 9, 12, 147

of grief, 114,
115

of guilt, 45

and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), 174

of joy, 183–184, 187

recognition of, 222–223

of shame, 48–49

facial expressions (cont.)

and vagus nerve, 211

and Wittgenstein’s theory on emotions, 128–129

Fallon, Jim, 30, 39

family resemblances theory, 131–132

fear

anxiety compared to, 83–85, 94

and courage, 212

Darwin on, 147–148

evolutionary origins of, 10–11

fear conditioning, 89–90

and guilt, 46

and love, 225, 246, 247

as measured by skin conductance response (SCR), 22

as negative emotion, 11

neural seat of,
91
, 91–92, 97–98

and parental care, 233, 234

passive and active fear, 97–99

physical expressions of, 90

research on, 182

feelings, emotions compared to, 11, 128

fiction, 164–166, 172–177

Fisher, Helen, 223, 240, 242, 243

Fitzpatrick, Susan, 66

fMRI.
See
brain imaging technologies

focus, 18, 190

food consumption, 198–199

forgiveness, 74–75

Frances, Allen, 125

Frayn, Michael, 167

Frederick II, 222

Fredrickson, Barbara, 209–210

Freud, Sigmund

on anxiety, 85

on early-life experiences, 233

on grief and depression, 123–124

on guilt, 43–44, 71

on pleasure and pain, 182

structural theory of the mind, 14–15, 71–72,
72
, 196, 258n10, 266n35

friendships, 209–211, 213, 217

fusiform face area of the brain, 228

Gage, Phineas, 19–20, 21, 39, 259n16

gambling, 20–21

Gaulle, Yvonne de, 203

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD),
88–89, 107

generosity, 208–209

genetics

and amygdala reactivity, 101–102

and anger/aggression, 25–28

and anxiety, 89, 101–102

behavioral effects of, 39, 40

and environment, 28–31

and legal culpability, 31–33,
35–36

and online dating services, 240

and parental care, 235, 236

Ginsberg, Allen, 194

GlaxoSmithKline, 136

Golgi, Camillo, 149

Greene, Joshua, 54–55

grief, 111–143

ancient perspectives on, 137–142

and biomarkers, 130–131

complicated grief (CG), 125

and depression, 122–126

duration of, 125–126

Freud on, 123–124

good grief, 122–126

language of, 126–129

as negative emotion, 11

passage of time in, 112

physical expressions of, 113–116,
115

and physical pain, 119–122, 272n21

prolonged grief disorder (PGD),
125, 142

and separation, 120, 121

stages of, 113

and tears, 116–119

treatment of, 141–142

variation in, 129–132

Gross, Cornelius, 97

guilt, 41–75

anger compared to, 45–46

and bad conduct, 45–47

behavioral effects of, 46–47

brain imaging of, 64–66, 69–71, 73–74

and Caravaggio, 58–61, 62, 63, 69

and choices, 53–55

and disgust, 49–50

evolution of, 47, 55

and forgiveness, 74–75

Freud’s experience with, 43–44, 71

and manipulation, 46

and memory, 51–52

and morality, 45, 49–50, 53–55, 63, 72–73, 263n7

as negative emotion, 11

neural seat of, 56–58,
58

and personal values, 45–47

regret and shame compared to, 47–49

and social contexts, 62–63

and the superego, 15

gun control, 36

Hamlet
(Shakespeare), 146–147

‘handedness’ of the brain, 200–203

hand washing, 263n11

Hauser, Marc, 266n37

heart, anger’s effect on, 37

hedonism, 204–206, 212

Heidegger, Martin, 93–96, 99, 268n21, 269n28

Henry V
(Shakespeare), 168

heroin, 195

Himbas, 186

hippocampus, 16,
17
, 164

Hippocrates, 138–142

Holmes, James, 34, 36, 39

homeostasis, 182

homosexuality, 63, 286n8

hope, 11

Human Genome Project, 27

humility, 61

humours of Hippocrates, 138–142,
140

Huntington’s disease, 27–28

hypothalamus, 230

id (Freudian concept), 14, 71–72,
72
, 258n10

illusion’s role in theatre performances, 172

imagination, 225–227, 242

impulsivity, 24–27

inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)

and adhesion to fiction, 174

and empathy, 152

and fictional vs. real characters,
165, 166

mirroring functions of,
151
,
151–152

inferior parietal lobule (IPL), 151

insula, 152–153

intuition, 22

Jacopo da Lentini, 222

James, William, 84–85, 102–103, 156, 212, 268n12

joy and happiness, 179–213

and anticipation, 219

and asymmetry of the brain, 202

and chills experienced with music,
197–198

contributing factors, 208

cultivation of, 211–212

and dopamine, 194–195

enhanced with drugs, 193–195

and eudaimonia, 204–206, 212