Europe: A History (274 page)

Alexandria 135, 136

Alexei I, Tsar of Russia 558

Alexius I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor 333

Alfred the Great, King of Wessex 308

Allied Scheme of History 39–42, 1055

Alliluyeva, Svetlana 960

Alphabets
116–17
,1217, 1218

Alps
57, 58, 537–8
, 1219

Alsace
622–3, 718, 1281

Amiens, Peace of (1802) 726

Anarchism 840–1

Anaxagoras 119

Ancient Civilizations
(see
Assyria, Babylon, Cadmus, Egypt, Indus Civilization, Minoan, Mycenae, Phoenicia)

Andorra 1089

Andrič, Ivo
980–1

Andronicus Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor 333

Andropov, Yuri 1093, 1103, 1104, 1109

Andrusovo, Truce of (1667) 556, 558, 574

Angelus
407

Angevin Dynasty (House of Anjou) 398, 401, 429, 1261, 1262

Annales School 47,
955–6

Anne, Empress of Russia 652

Anne, Queen of Great Britain 631

Anthropology
161–2

Anti-communism
917

Anti-fascism 40, 501, 947–8, 952, 985

Anti-semitism 108, 197, 338, 358, 414, 416, 465, 598, 844, 846–7, 850, 857, 859, 969, 974–5, 993, 1002, 1016–25
(see also
Jewry)

Antoninus Pius, Roman Emperor 189

Appeasement 986, 987, 990–1

Aragon, Kingdom of 393–4, 451, 453, 1251, 1252

Arbroath, Declaration of (1320) 409

Arcadia 1205

Archaeology 70–1, 73–4, 762, 78, 81, 83–4,
327

dendrochronology 63–84, 68, 78, 85,
327
(see also
Evans, Arthur; Schliemann, Heinrich)

Archimedes
125
, 143, 144

Architecture

Bauhaus 956

Enlightenment 586

Gothic style
356–7

Greece (Ancient) 119

Inter-war 956

medieval 440–1

Neo-classicism 786

Renaissance 481

Rome (Ancient) 174

Secession
(Jugendstil)
865

Arcimboldo, G. 529, 1211

Ariosto, Ludovico 482

Aristophanes 115

Aristotle 110–11

Armenia

Bagratid State 335

Christianity and 265

genocide
909

Arndt, Ernst Moritz 733

Arras, Union of (1578) 538

Ashmole, Elias 633–4

Art

Art Nouveau 865

Baroque 505–6

Dutch School 539

Enlightenment 586

Galleries 806–7

Impressionism 865, 866, 1212

Inter-war 953–6

medieval 441, 474–5

Modern 862, 864–5, 866, 1212

Renaissance 481

Romanticism 688

Socialist realism 1098, 1011, 1212

Arts
(see
Architecture, Ballet, Cinema, Dance, Drama, Icon, Literature, Music, Opera, Painting, Photography, Sculpture, Theatre) Art Theft 741–2

Assyria 114–15, 1216

Asturias, Kingdom of 302

Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal) 907,937–8

Atheism 9, 479–80, 541, 601, 795, 800, 838, 856, 945, 952

Athens 128–9, 132

Athos, Mount 319

Atlantic Charter (1941) 1027, 1030

Attila ‘the Hun’ 232, 1206

Attlee, Clement 1047

Auerstadt, battle of (1806) 727

Augsburg, Confession of (1530) 485, 554

Augsburg, League of (1686) 624, 631

Augsburg, Peace of (1555) 504, 506, 526

Augustinian Order 345

Augustus, Roman Emperor 182

Augustus II, King of Poland 653, 657, 659

Augustus III, King of Poland 657, 659

Auschwitz 1002, 1016, 1018, 1023, 1026–7

Austerlitz, battle of (1805) 727, 727

Austria (Empire)

1848 revolution and 824, 826

establishment 733

Italian gains 762

Austria (Republic)

Anschluss
987

Nazi coup attempt 986

post-1945 1088

Austria-Hungary

annexation of Bosnia 871, 874

Ausgleich
(1867) 805, 828–9

Bosnian crisis 874, 875, 877, 879

collapse (1918) 921

national question in 828–9, 1307

World War I 901, 902, 903, 907, 909

Austrian Netherlands

Brussels rising 804

French invasion 719

French Revolutionary Wars 721

revolt of 1789 692–3, 695

Union of Belgian States 695

Austrian State Treaty (1955) 1088

Austrian Succession, War of 648–9

Autocracy 129, 184, 247, 578–9, 1265

Babel, Isaac
936

Babylon 92, 114–15, 1216

Bach, J. S. 590,
660

Bacon, Francis 508–9

Bacon, Roger 433, 435–6

Bakhtin, Mikhail 541

Bakunin, Mikhail 840

Balance of Power 581–2, 661

Balbao, Vasco Núñez de 511

Balfour, Arthur 907

Balfour Declaration (1917) 907

Balkan League 874

Balkan Pact 977

Balkan Peninsula 61

society
390

Wars 834, 874

Ballet 472

Balliol, John 408

Baltic peoples 227

Baltic Sea 59–60, 1331

Baltic States 1331
(see also
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania)

Balzac, Honoré de 788

Banking 401, 416, 518, 582, 682

Bannockburn, battle of (1314) 408, 409

Barcelona massacre (1939) 984–5

Baroque culture 504, 505–6

Barrès, Maurice 822

Basil I, Byzantine Emperor 318

Basques 220,
639

Battenberg family
808–10
, 1300–1

Baudelaire, Charles 861–2

Bayezit, Ottoman Sultan 386

Bayle, Pierre 599, 603

Beauharnais, Josephine de 726, 756

Beauvoir, Simone de 1076

Beck, Józef 978

Bede, The Venerable 277–81

Beethoven, Ludwig van 590,667–8,
684–5
, 688

Begin, Menahim 978

Belarus (Byelorussia)

absorbed by Lithuania 392

Byelorussian National Republic 933

incorporated into the Russian Empire 661

nationalism 828

Belgium
626–7
, 891–3,
904
, 1033, 1060

de-colonization 1069

independence 804
(see also
Austrian Netherlands)

Belisarius 242

Bell, Bishop George 922–3

Bellegarrigue, Anselme 840, 841

Benda, Julien 952

Benedict XIV, Pope 593

Benelux Economic Union (1958) 1075

Beneš, Edvard 990, 1062, 1067

Bentham, Jeremy 598

Berg, Grand Duchy of 729

Beria, Lavrenti 1091

Bering, Vitus 580

Berkeley, George 597–8

Berlin

Blockade (1948–9) 1067, 1071

Congress of (1878) 870–1, 1212

Crisis (1961) 1104–5, 1112–13

Wall 1105, 1112–13, 1123
(see also
Brandenburg Gate)

Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste 737

Bernini, Gianlorenzo 569,571–5

Bernstein, Eduard 838

Bessarabia 739, 871
(see also
Moldova)

Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von 879,888–92

Biancamano, Umberto 638

Bible
196

Bierut, Boleslaw 1061–2, 1100, 1102

Bigot de Préamenau, Jean 711

Biology 122, 433
(see also
Botany, Evolution,Genetics)

Bishopric of Rome 203, 212
(see also
Papacy)

Bismarck, Otto von 760, 824, 826, 841–2, 868, 870, 871, 1212

Black Death 409, 411–13

anti-semitism and 412

economic consequences 412

social consequences 412–13

Black Sea 60, 1290

Blake, William 8, 682, 688

Blanc, Louis 836–7

Blanqui, Louis-Auguste 836

Blarney Castle 550

Bloch, Marc 955–6

Blok, Alexander 11–12, 953

Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich 734–5

Bluntschli, Johann Kaspar 874, 875

Boccaccio 1208

Bodin, Jean 521

Bogumilism 322–3

Bohemia

Calvinism 494

Christianity and 324

medieval 428–9

reversion to the Habsburgs 524–5, 526

Thirty Years War and 563–4
(see also
Czechoslovakia)

‘Bolsheviks’ 11, 12, 836, 839–40, 914, 915, 916, 920, 921, 918, 929, 931, 932, 934–5, 937, 938

Bonaparte, Jerome, King of Westphalia 726, 733

Bonaparte, Joseph, King of Naples and

Spain 726, 733

Bonaparte, Louis, King of Holland 726, 729

Bonaparte, Luden, Prince of Canino 726

Bonaparte, Napoleon 701, 711, 712, 722, 724, 725–6, 727, 728, 729, 737, 739, 742, 744, 746, 747, 1210

Army of Italy and 722

Concordat 703, 711

death of 99–100, 762

fall of 748–57

Hundred Days 761–2

Imperial Guard 748, 751

suicide bid 755

Bonaparte, Napoleon II, King of Rome 726

Bonchamps, Marquis de 704, 707

Boniface VIII, Pope 401

Bormann, Martin 1045, 1052

Borodino, battle of (1812) 742, 751

Bosnia 870, 871, 874, 875, 980–1, 1124, 1258

Bosnian Crisis 874, 875, 877

Bossuet, Jacques 602–3

Bosworth Field, battle of (1485) 426

Botany 122, 530, 599

Botticelli, Sandro 469, 481

Bouboulina, Laskarina 732

Bourbon, House of 494, 506, 539, 638, 639

Bouvines, battle of (1214) 354, 355, 376

Boxer Rebellion 852

Boyne, battle of the 631, 631

Brahe, Tycho 508

Brandenburg Gate 720

Brandt, Willy 1114, 1124

Branting, Hjalmar 940–4

Brecht, Berthold 952

Brest, Union of (1596) 505

Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918) 914, 920

Bretton Woods Conference (1944) 1081

Brezhnev, Leonid 1090, 1092, 1106, 1108

Brezhnev Doctrine 1092, 1106

Briand, Aristide 950–1

Brie
299

Brienne, Lomenie de 688, 691

Brissot, Jacques Pierre 717, 719

Britain

ancient 69, 231–2

local history
418–19

Bronze Age 76, 78, 81

Brooke, Rupert 892–3

Brothers Karamazov, The
496–9

Bruch, Max 788–9

Brunelleschi, Filippo 473

Brunswick, Charles, Duke of 695, 721

Brussels
926–7

Brussels Treaty of (1948) 1067, 1070

Buczacz
1034–5

Budapest
367–6

Budé, Guillaume
477

Bukovina, Austrian seizure (1774)
644, 1012
, 1315

Bulgaria

Balkan Wars 874

Christianity and 321, 323–4

Empire 320–1, 1245

fall of 388, 391

Bulgaria
(cont.):

independence 870, 871

medieval 1245

Patriarchate established 380–1

post-1945 1105, 1245

Second Empire 386, 388

under Ottomans 644

Bulgars 246

Bulge, battle of the (1944) 1042

Burckhardt, Jakob 473, 517

Burgundy, Duchy of 230–1, 426–7, 524, 1260

Burke, Edmund 699, 701, 713

Butler, Joseph 601

Byron, Lord George 97, 683

Byzantium 1206, 1237

civilization 246, 248, 250–1

decline of 332–5

defences
243

early development 238–40, 242, 244–6

economy 250

Macedonian Dynasty 318, 320, 1237

medieval 385–6

military 250

Papacy and 288

ritual
249–50

society 250–1
see also
Constantinople

Cabala 396–7

Cabet, Etienne 836

Cabot, John 511

Cadmus 116–17

Cadoudal, Georges 708

Caesar, Julius 155, 156, 158, 177

Calais 545

Calendar
152–3, 267–8, 698

Caligula, Roman Emperor 188

Caliphs 252–3

Calvin, Jean 490, 492, 493

Cambrai, Peace of (1529) 545

Camembert
299

Campbell, Neil 754, 755

Campo Formio, Peace of (1797) 724

Canals 303, 602, 681–2, 980, 1081

Canary Islands 451

Cannae, battle of (216
BC)
155

Canning, George 763

Canossa
342

Canute (Knut), King of Denmark and England 294, 308, 328

Capetian Dynasty 317, 318, 353, 354, 404, 406–8

Capitalism 422–3, 517–18

Caporetto, battle of (1917) 907

Carbonari 823

Carbon dating 68

Carlowitz, Peace of (1699) 643

Carlyle, Thomas 6, 677, 693–4

Carnot, Lazare 715

Carron, Antoine 1209

Carthage 104, 108, 139–47,1530, 155

Carthusian Order 345

Cartier, Jacques 513, 539

Casanova, Giovanni di Seingalt 672–3

Casimir the Great, King of Poland 429, 431, 1208

Cassiodorus, Flavius Senator 266

Cassius, Longinus 158

Castile 345, 380, 393, 451–5, 1241

Castile and Aragón, Union of 451, 453

Catastrophes 89–94, 640, 895

Cateau-Cambresis, Peace of (1559) 539, 545

Cathars 361–2, 410–11

Catherine I, Empress of Russia 652

Catherine II, Empress of Russia 610–11, 649, 652, 654, 658, 692, 719

Cato, Marcus Porcius, ‘The Censor’ 155, 156

Cato, Marcus Porcius, ‘Uticensis’ 156, 158

Caucasian peoples 219

Caucasus, geography 61, 1298

Caulaincourt, Armand de 752, 755

Cavalry 174, 215, 229, 311, 518–20, 585–4, 938

Cavour, Camillo 823

Ceausescu, Nicolae 1105

Celtic Language 79–80

Celts 84, 86–7, 88, 221–2, 308–9

Censorship 260–1, 445, 1274
(see also
Index) Chamberlain, Austen 951

Chamberlain, Houston Stewart 817

Chamberlain, Neville 976, 987, 990, 995, 997

Channel Islands 1089
Chanson de Roland
255

Chaplin, Charles 958

Charity 778–9, 1029

Charlemagne, St 258, 298, 302–4, 305–6, 307, 326, 1207, 1239

Empire 298, 302, 1239

Charles I, Emperor of Austria 910, 921, 934

Charles le Téméraire, Duke of Burgundy 426, 427

Charles the Bald, Carolingian King 306, 308