Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (98 page)

33
Weinberg,
World at Arms
, 81.

34
Quotation: Sebag Montefiore,
Court
, 536.

35
Service,
Stalin
, 554. On central Asia, see Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 324.

36
Kramer, “Konsolidierung,” 86-90.

37
The argument about the difference between the 1950s and the 1930s is developed in Zubok,
Empire
, 77. See also Gorlizki,
Cold Peace
, 97.

38
On Shcherbakov, see Brandenberger,
National Bolshevism
, 119 and passim; Kuromiya, “Jews,” 523, 525; and Zubok,
Empire
, 7.

39
On the Victory Day parade, see Brandenberger, “Last Crime,” 193. On Etinger, see Brent,
Plot
, 11. See also Lustiger,
Stalin
, 213. Stalin’s concern with medical terrorism dated back to at least 1930; see Prystaiko,
Sprava
, 49.

40
On Karpai, see Brent,
Plot
, 296.

41
Lukes, “New Evidence,” 165.

42
Ibid., 178-180; Lustiger,
Stalin
, 264.

43
For the quotation and the proportion (eleven out of fourteen defendants of Jewish origin), see
Proces z vedením
, 44-47, at 47. On the denunciations, see Margolius Kovály,
Cruel Star
, 139.

44
For Slánský’s confession, see
Proces z vedením
, 66, 70, 72. For the death penalty and the hangman, see Lukes, “New Evidence,” 160, 185. On Margolius, see Margolius Kovály,
Cruel Star
, 141.

45
On Poland, see Paczkowski,
Trzy twarze
, 162.

46
Quotation: Brent,
Plot
, 250.

47
Kostyrchenko,
Shadows
, 264; Brent,
Plot
, 267. On the dance, see Service,
Stalin
, 580.

48
On Mikhoels as Lear, see Veidlinger,
Yiddish Theater.

49
For “every Jew . . . ,” see Rubenstein,
Pogrom
, 62. For “their nation had been saved . . . ,” see Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 220.

50
Quotations: Kostyrchenko,
Shadows
, 290. See also Lustiger,
Stalin
, 250.

51
On Karpai, see Kostyrchenko,
Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm
, 466; and Brent,
Plot
, 296.

52
On the drafting and redrafting, see Kostyrchenko,
Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm
, 470-478. On Grossman, see Brandenberger, “Last Crime,” 196. See also Luks, “Brüche,” 47, The Grossman quotation is from
Life and Fate
at 398.

53
On Ehrenburg, see Brandenberger, “Last Crime,” 197.

54
For the rumors, see Brandenberger, “Last Crime,” 202. For the number of doctors, see Luks, “Brüche,” 42.

55
Khlevniuk, “Stalin as dictator,” 110, 118. On Stalin’s nonappearance at factories, farms, and government offices after the Second World War, see Service,
Stalin
, 539.

56
On Stalin’s security chiefs, see Brent,
Plot
, 258.

57
Stalin ordered beatings on 13 November; see Brent,
Plot,
224. On the trial, see Lustiger,
Stalin
, 250.

58
For details on the “anti-Zionist campaign” of 1968, see Stola,
Kampania antysyjonistyczna
; and Paczkowski,
Pół wieku.

59
Rozenbaum, “March Events,” 68.

60
On the earlier Soviet practice, see Szajnok,
Polska a Izrael
, 160.

61
Stola, “Hate Campaign,” 19, 31. On the “fifth column, ” see Rozenbaum, “1968,” 70.

62
Stola, “Hate Campaign,” 20.

63
For the figure of 2,591 people arrested, see Stola, “Hate Campaign,” 17. For the Gdańsk railway station, see Eisler, “1968,” 60.

64
See Judt,
Postwar
, 422-483; and Simons,
Eastern Europe.

65
Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 396.

CONCLUSION: HUMANITY

1
Compare Moyn, “In the Aftermath.” The interpretations here arise from arguments that are documented in the chapters; the annotation is therefore limited.

2
Perhaps a million people died in the German camps (as opposed to the death facilities and shooting and starvation sites). See Orth,
System.

3
Compare Keegan,
Face of Battle
, 55; and Gerlach and Werth, “State Violence,” 133.

4
Most of the remainder of those who starved were in Kazakhstan. I am counting the deaths in Ukraine as intended, and those in Kazakhstan as foreseeable. Future research might change the estimation of intentionality.

5
This and the below quotation follow Robert Chandler’s 2010 translation of
Everything Flows
, unpublished as I write. See also
Life and Fate
at 29.

6
A sustained discussion of the moral economy of land and murder is Kiernan,
Blood and Soil.

7
Mao’s China exceeded Hitler’s Germany in the famine of 1958-1960, which killed some thirty million people.

8
For “belligerent complicity,” see Furet,
Fascism and Communism
, 2. Compare Edele, “States,” 348. Hitler quotation: Lück, “Partisanbekämpfung,” 228.

9
Todorov,
Mémoire du mal
, 90.

10
Milgram, “Behavior Study,” still repays reading.

11
Kołakowski,
Main Currents
, 43.

12
On international bystanding, see Power,
Problem.

13
Fest,
Das Gesicht
, 108, 162.

14
As Harold James notes, theories of violent modernization actually fare badly in purely economic terms; see
Europe Reborn
, 26. Buber-Neumann quotation:
Under Two Dictators
, 35.

15
The most significant German crime in Soviet Russia was the deliberate starvation of Leningrad, in which about a million people died. The Germans killed a relatively small number of Jews in Soviet Russia, perhaps sixty thousand. They also killed at least a million prisoners of war from Soviet Russia in the Dulags and the Stalags. These people are usually reckoned as military losses in Soviet and Russian estimates; since I am counting them as victims of a deliberate killing policy, I am
increasing
the estimate of 1.8 million in Filimoshin, “Ob itogakh,” 124. I believe that the Russian estimate for deaths at Leningrad is too low by about four hundred thousand people, so I add that as well. If Boris Sokolov is right, and Soviet military losses were far higher than the conventional estimates, then most of the people in the higher estimates were soldiers. If Ellman and Maksudov are right, and Soviet military losses were in fact lower, then most of these people were civilians: often civilians not under German occupation. See Sokolov, “How to Count,” 451-457; and Ellman, “Soviet Deaths,” 674-680.

16
On the deaths of 516,841 Gulag inmates, see Zemskov, “Smertnost’,” 176. On the four million Soviet citizens in the Gulag (including the special settlements), see Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 307.

17
Brandon and Lower estimate 5.5-7 million total losses in Soviet Ukraine during the war; see “Introduction,” 11.

18
For an introduction to the memory culture, see Goujon, “Memorial.”

19
Here as elsewhere in the Conclusion, discussions of numbers are documented in the chapters.

20
Janion,
Do Europy.
On Berman, see Gniazdowski, “‘Ustalić liczbę.”

INDEX

AB Aktion (Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion, Extraordinary Pacification Action)

Abakumov, Viktor

Adamczyk, Wiesław

Aged.
See
Elderly

Aginskaia, Perla

Akhmatova, Anna

Allilueva, Svetlana

Angielczyk, Czesława

Anielewicz, Mordechai

Anschluss

Anti-Comintern Pact (1936)

Anti-Semitism

Belarus and

in Britain

in Czechoslovakia

Hitler, Adolf and

National Socialism and

in Poland

Soviet Union and

Stalin, Joseph and

in United States

Arajs, Viktor

Archangelsk, Soviet Union

Arendt, Hannah

Armenians

Aronson, Stanisław

Aryanization

Auschwitz

Austria

Babi Yar

Babushkina, Evgenia

Bach-Zelewski, Erich von dem

Backe, Herbert

Baltic States
See also
Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia

Balts

See also
Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians

Balytskyi, Vsevolod

BBC.
See
British Broadcasting Corporation

Bełżec

Bechtolsheim, Gustav von

Belarus

anti-Semitism in

Final Solution and

Final Solution in

German-Soviet war (1941-1945) and

Great Terror of 1937-1938 and

Hitler, Adolf and

Holocaust and

Jews, murder of in

Jews in

Lenin, Vladimir and

Minsk

nationalism and

partisan warfare in

Polish Jews in

Soviet prisoners of war and

Stalin, Joseph and

Belarusians

murder of

Belgium

Belomor canal

Belozovskaia, Iza

Belsen

Beneš, Edvard

Bergen-Belsen concentration camp

Berger, Oskar

Bergman, Bluma

Beria, Lavrenty

Berman, Boris

Berman, Jakub

Bielski, Tuvia

Bierut, Bolesław

Birkenau

See also
Auschwitz

Black Book of Soviet Jewry

Blokhin, Vasily

Blum, Léon

Bolshevik Revolution (1917)

Bolshevism, Bolsheviks

Borowski, Tadeusz

Britain.
See
Great Britain

British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)

The Brothers Karamazov
(Dostoevsky)

Brzeziński, Mieczysław

Buber-Neumann, Margarete

Buchenwald concentration camp

Bukharin, Nikolai

Bulgaria

Bulgarians

First World War and

Cannibalism

Capitalism

Caucasus

Cedrowski, Izydor

Central Powers

Chamberlain, Neville

Chełmno

Cheka

Children

Final Solution and

Great Terror of 1937 and 1938 and

Poland, German invasion of and

Soviet concentration camps and

Soviet famines and

China

Churchill, Winston

Circus
(film)

Cold War

Collectivization

failure of

industrialization and

legal basis for

socialism and

Soviet famines and

Stalin, Joseph and

Cominform (Communist Informational Bureau)

Communism

fascism and

Hitler, Adolf and

Holocaust and

Home Army (Poland) and

industrialization and

Jews and

National Socialism and

Poland and

Tito-Stalin split and

Communist International

Concentration Camp Warsaw

Congress of Victors (1934)

Cosmopolitanism

Crabwalk
(Grass)

Cracow, Poland

Crimea

Croatia

Cukierman, Icchak

Czapski, Józef

Czechoslovakia

Czechs

Czerniaków, Adam

Dąbal, Tomasz

Dachau concentration camp

Daladier, Edouard

Darkness at Noon
(Koestler)

Darwinism

Death factories

Auschwitz

Bełżec

Chełmno

concentration camps vs.

“euthanasia” program and

liberation of

Polish Jews and

Polish Jews executed in

Sobibór

Soviet prisoners of war and

Treblinka

Defoe, Daniel

Democracy

Denmark

Der Nister

Dirlewanger, Oskar

Dirlewanger Brigade

Dmowski, Roman

Dnipropretrovsk, Ukraine

Donetsk, Ukraine.
See
Stalino, Ukraine

Dorfmann, Ruth

Dostoevsky, Fyodor