Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (95 page)

5
Browning,
Origins
, 419; Black, “Handlanger,” 320.

6
Evans,
Third Reich at War
, 84-90.

7
Quotation: Gerlach, “Wannsee,” 782. See also Rieß, “Wirth,” 244; Pohl, “Znaczenie,” 45; and Poprzeczny,
Globocnik
, 163. On Wirth’s role, see Black, “Prosty,” 105; and Scheffler, “Probleme,” 270, 276. The “euthanasia” program continued, with greater stealth, now with the use of lethal injections and drug overdoses. Tens of thousands more Germans were killed in the years to come.

8
Kershaw,
Final Solution
, 71; Mazower,
Hitler’s Empire
, 191 and passim.

9
Quotation: Kershaw,
Final Solution
, 66. See also, generally, Mallmann, “Rozwiązać,” 85-95, date at 95; Horwitz,
Ghettostadt
, 154; and Friedländer,
Origins
, 314-318. On Lange, see Friedlander,
Origins
, 286; and Kershaw,
Final Solution
, 71.

10
According to Arad, Wirth was responsible for the design; see
Reinhard
, 24.

11
See Pohl,
Ostgalizien
; and Sandkühler,
Galizien.

12
Arad,
Reinhard
, 44, 56; Młynarczyk,
Judenmord
, 252, 257. On 14 March, see Rieger,
Globocnik
, 108. On the 1,600 Jews who lacked labor documents, see Poprzeczny,
Globocnik
, 226.

13
Młynarczyk,
Judenmord
, 260.

14
On the daily quotas and more generally, see Młynarczyk,
Judenmord
, 260; and Pohl,
Verfolgung
, 94.

15
For the figure 434,508, see Witte, “New Document,” 472. Pohl counts three survivors; see
Verfolgung
, 95. On Wirth, see Black, “Prosty,” 104. The commander of Bełżec as of August 1942 was Gottlieb Hering.

16
On Cracow, see Grynberg,
Życie
, 3; Pohl,
Verfolgung
, 89; and Hecht,
Memories
, 66.

17
Pohl,
Verfolgung
, 95.

18
On 17 April, see Pohl, “Znaczenie,” 49. On 1 June, see “Obóz zagłady,” 134.

19
Grabher,
Eberl
, 70, 74.

20
On Frank, see Arad,
Reinhard
, 46; Berenstein, “Praca,” 87; and Kershaw,
Final Solution
, 106. On the Trawniki men, see Młynarczyk, “Akcja,” 55.

21
Quotation: Longerich,
Himmler
, 588.

22
Friedländer,
Extermination
, 349.

23
Gerlach, “Wannsee,” 791. See also Pohl, “Znaczenie,” 49.

24
Tooze,
Wages of Destruction
, 365, 549.

25
Gutman,
Resistance
, 198. Compare Aly,
Architects
, 211.

26
Quotation: Witte, “New Document,” 477.

27
Arad,
Reinhard
, 61; Młynarczyk, “Akcja,” 55; Urynowicz, “Zagłada,” 108; Friedländer,
Extermination
, 428; Hilburg, “Ghetto,” 108. On the promised bread and marmalade, see Berenstein, “Praca,” 142. Quotation: FVA 2327.

28
Engelking,
Getto
, 661-665; Gutman,
Resistance
, 142.

29
Urynowicz, “Zagłada,” 108-109; Trunk,
Judenrat
, 507.

30
Urynowicz, “Zagłada,” 109-111. See also Gutman,
Resistance
, 142.

31
On Korczak, see Kassow,
History
, 268; and Friedländer,
Extermination
, 429. Quotation: Engelking,
Getto
, 676.

32
For the cited figures, see Friedländer,
Extermination
, 230. Higher estimates are in Drozdowski, “History,” 192 (315,000), and Bartoszewski,
Warszawski pierścień
, 195 (310,322).

33
“Treblinka,” 174. On the payment “in kind,” see Trunk,
Judenrat
, 512.

34
On the sweat, see Arad,
Reinhard
, 64. On the fields and forests, see Wdowinski,
Saved
, 69.

35
On Wiernik, see Kopówka,
Treblinka
, 28.

36
Arad,
Reinhard
, 81; Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 266; “Obóz zagłady,” 141; Królikowski, “Budowałem,” 49.

37
On 22 August, see Evans,
Third Reich at War
, 290. On 23 August, see Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 262. On 24 August, see Wiernik,
Year
, 8. On 25 August, see Krzepicki, “Treblinka,” 98. On 26 August, see Shoah 02694, in FVA. Stangl quotation (21 August): Sereny,
Darkness
, 157.

38
Arad,
Reinhard
, 87.

39
Wdowinski,
Saved
, 78; Arad,
Reinhard
, 65.

40
Stangl quotation: Arad,
Reinhard
, 186.

41
On Franz, see Arad,
Reinhard
, 189; Kopówka,
Treblinka
, 32; Glazar,
Falle
, 118; and “Treblinka,” 194.

42
On the Polish government, see Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 36-53. On the contemplated attack, see Libionka, “Polska konspiracja,” 482. On the postcards, see Hilberg, “Judenrat,” 34. On the postal service, see Sakowska,
Ludzie
, 312.

43
On the “clinic,” see “Obóz zagłady,” 137; Glazar,
Falle
, 51; Arad,
Reinhard
, 122; and Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 267. On the “station,” see “Obóz zagłady,” 137; Arad,
Reinhard
, 123; and Willenberg,
Revolt
, 96. On the orchestra, see “Tremblinki,” 40; and “Treblinka,” 193. On the Yiddish, see Krzepicki, “Treblinka,” 89.

44
“Treblinka,” 178; Arad,
Reinhard
, 37; Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 269. On the rapes, see Willenberg,
Revolt
, 105.

45
Arad,
Reinhard
, 108; Młynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 267; Willenberg,
Revolt
, 65.

46
Arad,
Reinhard
, 119; Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 259, 269.

47
Kopówka,
Treblinka
, 34; Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 263, 269. On the “metamorphosis,” see Rajchman,
Le dernier Juif
, 88.

48
Rajgrodzki, “W obozie zagłady,” 107. Arad,
Reinhard
, 174. On the Germans warming themselves, see Wiernik,
Year
, 29. On the women naked in the cold, see Rajchman,
Le dernier Juif
, 96.

49
For “It’s no use,” see Rajchman,
Le dernier Juif
, 33. On the embrace and Ruth Dorfmann, see Willenberg,
Revolt
, 56, 65.

50
On the local economy, see Willenberg,
Revolt
, 30; and Rusiniak,
Obóz
, 26. On “Europe,” see Rusiniak,
Obóz
, 27.

51
Friedländer,
Extermination
, 598. On Stalingrad, see Rajgrodzki, “W obozie zagłady,” 109.

52
On the dismantling, see Arad,
Reinhard
, 373. On Operation Harvest Festival (Erntefest), see Arad,
Reinhard
, 366. Some 15,000 Białystok Jews were also shot; see Bender, “Białystok,” 25.

53
The sources of the Treblinka count are Witte, “New Document,” 472, which provides the Germans’ count for 1942 of 713,555 (intercepted by the British); and Młynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 281, which supplies a 1943 reckoning of 67,308. For the Radom estimate, see Młynarczyk,
Judenmord
, 275. Wiernik claims that there were two transports of (uncircumcised) Poles; see
Year
, 35. “Obóz zagłady,” a report published in Warsaw in early 1946, gives the estimate 731,600, and provides much basic information.

54
Rusiniak,
Obóz
, 20.

55
Kamenec, “Holocaust,” 200-201; Kamenec, “Deportation,” 116, 123, figure at 130.

56
Hilberg,
Destruction
(vol. III), 939, 951; Browning,
Origins
, 421.

57
Compare Brandon, “Holocaust in 1942”; Dwork,
Auschwitz
, 326.

58
Pohl,
Verfolgung
, 107; Hilberg,
Destruction
(vol. III), 959; Stark,
Hungarian Jews
, 30; Długoborski, “Żydzi,” 147.

59
Although we know the number of dead in these facilities with some precision, the precise number of Polish Jews is difficult to extract from the larger figure. Although Treblinka, Sobibór, and Bełżec were primarily killing centers for the Polish Jews of the General Government, other people also died in these three places, especially in 1943: Czechoslovak Jews, German Jews, Dutch Jews, French Jews, as well as Poles and Roma.

60
On the Roma, see Pohl,
Verfolgung
, 113-116; Evans,
Third Reich at War
, 72-73, 531-535; and Klein, “Gottberg,” 99.

61
For the “wonderful song,” see Glazar, 57. On music as “revolutionary,” see Rajgrodzki, “W obozie zagłady,” 109. On “el male rachamim,” see Arad,
Reinhard
, 216.

CHAPTER 9: RESISTANCE AND INCINERATION

1
Lück, “Partisanbekämpfung,” 246; Zaloga,
Bagration
, 27, 28, 43, 56.

2
Zaloga,
Bagration
, 7, 69, 71. The Americans had been in Italy since 1943.

3
Grossman,
Road
, 27. See also Furet,
Passé
, 536; and Gerard,
Bones
, 187-189. Grossman may not have understood that the signs of the mass murder were visible because the local Polish population had been looking for valuables. It would have been impossible for him to write that the guards at Treblinka were Soviet citizens.

4
Engelking,
Żydzi
, 260. See also Miłosz,
Legends
; and Snyder, “Wartime Lies.”

5
Tokarzewski-Karaszewicz, “U podstaw tworzenia Armii Krajowej,” 124-157.

6
On fighting for the restoration of Poland as a democratic republic, see Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 19, 23, 34. On the NKVD, see Engelking,
Żydzi
, 147.

7
Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 24.

8
Wdowinski,
Saved
, 78; Arens, “Jewish Military,” 205.

9
Wdowinski,
Saved
, 79, 82; Libionka, “Pomnik,” 110; Libionka, “Deconstructing,” 4; Libionka, “Apokryfy,” 166.

10
On Agudas Israel, see Bacon,
Politics of Tradition.

11
The story of the formation of the Jewish Combat Organization is complex. See Sakowska,
Ludzie
, 322-325; and Zuckerman,
Surplus.

12
On the rescue organization, see Bartoszewski,
Warszawski pierścień
, 16; and Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 27, 33, 36, 39, 56.

13
Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 60, 71.

14
Bartoszewski,
Ten jest
, 32; Sakowska,
Ludzie
, 321, quotation (Marek Lichtenbaum) at 326.

15
Gutman,
Resistance
, 198.

16
Engelking,
Warsaw Ghetto
, 763; Kopka,
Warschau
, 33-34.

17
On the arms cache, see Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 69; and Moczarski,
Rozmowy
, 232. On the anti-Semitic minority, see Engelking,
Żydzi
, 193, and passim.

18
Quotation (Himmler): Kopka,
Warschau
, 36.

19
Szapiro,
Wojna
, 9; Milton,
Stroop
, passim; Libionka, “Polska konspiracja,” 472.

20
Quotation (Gustawa Jarecka): Kassow,
History
, 183.

21
Engelking,
Warsaw Ghetto
, 774; Engelking,
Getto warszawskie
, 733; Gutman,
Resistance
, 201.