Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (63 page)

“Toussaint Louverture avant 1789: Légendes et réalités,”
Conjonction
134 (June–

July 1977): 65–80.

39. McLellan,
Colonialism and Science,
24–25, 80.

40. King,
Blue Coat or Powdered Wig,
34–36; Wimpffen,
Haiti aux XVIIIè
siècle,
174–175.

41. Moreau,
Description,
2:717–723; McClellan,
Colonialism and Science,
72.

42. Moreau,
Description,
3:1165–67.

43. Ibid., 3:1240–41; John Garrigus, “Blue and Brown: Contraband Indigo and

the Rise of a Free Colored Planter Class in French Saint-Domingue,”
The Americas
50 (October 1993): 233–263, 238; Frostin,
Les Révoltes blanches,
59.

44. King,
Blue Coat or Powdered Wig,
16.

45. Moreau,
Description,
1:330.

46. Frostin,
Les Révoltes blanches,
172, 182–183, 189–191, 205.

47. McLellan,
Colonialism and Science,
38; Frostin,
Les Révoltes blanches,
chap. 7. Following French usage, I use “metropole” to refer to continental France, since Saint-Domingue was considered by many to be part of France—first a province, then a department—although it was a colony

48. Frostin,
Les Révoltes blanches,
28; McLellan,
Colonialism and Science,
3, 75–76; Moreau,
Description,
1:185; 2:627, 619.

49. Sala-Moulins,
Le Code Noir;
Jean-Philippe Garran-Coulon,
Rapport sur les
troubles de Saint-Domingue
(Paris, 1798–99), 4:26.

50. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
485–486; Ghachem, “Sovereignty and Slavery,” 157–164.

312

n o t e s t o p a g e s 2 2 – 3 1

51. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
486–487; idem,
Les Colons de
Saint-Domingue et la Révolution: Essai sur le Club Massiac (août 1789–août 1792
) (Paris, 1951), 53–57; Ghachem, “Sovereignty and Slavery,” chap. 2; Frostin,
Les
Révoltes blanches,
371; Blackburn,
Overthrow of Colonial Slavery,
166, 175.

52. Blackburn,
Making of New World Slavery,
279–283; Tarrade,
Le Commerce
coloniale
.

53. Frostin,
Les Révoltes blanches,
43; Tarrade,
Le Commerce coloniale,
1:101–

112; David Geggus,
Slavery, War and Revolution: The British Occupation of Saint-Domingue, 1793–1798
(Oxford, 1982), 40.

54. Frostin,
Les Révoltes blanches,
152–157; Chaela Pastore, “Merchant Voyages: Michel Marsaudon and the Exchange of Colonialism in Saint-Domingue,

1788–1794” (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 2001), 224.

55. Frostin,
Les Révoltes blanches,
274; Tarrade,
Le Commerce coloniale,
538–

547 and chaps. 9–14 generally; Ghachem, “Sovereignty and Slavery,” chap. 3.

56. Bryan Edwards,
The History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies
in the West Indies
(London, 1801); 1:11; Moreau,
Description,
1:37, 43; Michel Etienne Descourtilz,
Voyages d’un naturaliste, et ses observations,
3 vols. (Paris, 1809), 2:52, 57–58.

57. Andrew O’Shaughnessy,
An Empire Divided: The American Revolution and

the British Caribbean
(Philadelphia, 2000); Sylvia Frey,
Water from the Rock:
Black Resistance in a Revolution Age
(Princeton, 1997).

58. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
91; Frostin,
Les Révoltes blanches,
71, 319–320; Descourtilz,
Voyages d’un naturaliste,
3:380.

2 . f e r m e n t a t i o n

1. Gabriel Debien, “Sur les plantations Mauger à l’Artibonite (Saint-Domingue 1763–1803)” in
Enquêtes et documents: Nantes, Afrique, Amérique
(Nantes, 1981), 219–314, 219–220, 288–290; idem,
Les Esclaves aux Antilles françaises (XVIIème–

XVIIIème siècles)
(Gourbeyre, 1974), 108.

2. Debien, “Sur les plantations,” 290–291.

3. Pierre Pluchon, “Introduction,” in Alexandre-Stanislas de Wimpffen,
Haiti
aux XVIIIème siècle,
ed. Pluchon (Paris, 1993), 11; Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles
françaises,
105–117, 159.

4. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
119–133.

5. Ibid., 147; Carolyn Fick,
The Making of Haiti: The Saint-Domingue Revolution from Below
(Knoxville, 1990), 30.

6. Debien, “Sur les plantations,” 292–295.

7. Ibid.
,
295–298.

8. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
69–71.

9.
DuBois Slave Trade Database
(Cambridge, 2000); Paul Lovejoy,
Transforma-n o t e s t o p a g e s 3 1 – 3 9

313

tions in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa,
2d ed. (Cambridge, 2000), 47–48; Philip Curtin,
The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census
(Madison, 1969), 268; Pluchon,

“Introduction,” 28.

10. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
345, 347; Arlette Gauthier,
Les
Soeurs de solitude: La condition féminine dans l’esclavage aux Antilles du XVIIème
au XIXème siècle
(Paris, 1985), 36; Thomas Ott,
The Haitian Revolution, 1789–

1804
(Knoxville, 1974), 17.

11. Lovejoy,
Transformations in Slavery,
55–57; Patrick Villiers,
Traite des noirs
et navires négriers au XVIIIè siècle
(Grenoble, 1982), 64–65.

12.
DuBois Slave Trade Database;
Lovejoy,
Transformations in Slavery,
49–55.

13. David Geggus, “Sugar and Coffee Cultivation in Saint Domingue and the

Shaping of the Slave Labor Force,” in
Cultivation and Culture: Labor and the
Shaping of Slave Life in the Americas,
ed. Ira Berlin and Philip Morgan (Charlottesville, 1993), 80, 83–84, 88; Louis Méderic Moreau de St. Méry,
Description
topographique, physique, civile, politique et historique de la partie française de
l’isle Saint-Domingue,
3 vols. (1796; reprint, Paris, 1958), 1: 47–54.

14. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
60–66, 74, and chap. 2 generally; Howard Justin Sosis, “The Colonial Environment and Religion in Haiti: An Introduction to the Black Slave Cults of the Eighteenth Century” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1971), 139–142 and chap. 8 generally; Geggus, “Sugar and

Coffee,” 73–98, 79–81; Odette Menesson-Rigaud Papers, box 1, folder 7/8, no. 42, Bibliothéque Haitïenne, Port-au-Prince.

15. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
60; Geggus, “Sugar and Coffee,” 81.

16. Moreau,
Description,
1:44, 55, 59; Gérard Barthélemy,
Créoles-Bossales:
Conflit en Haïti
(Cayenne, 2000).

17. Moreau,
Description,
3:1316; 1:56; Michel Etienne Descourtilz,
Voyages
d’un naturaliste, et ses observations,
3 vols. (Paris, 1809), 3:163, 176.

18. Moreau
, Description,
1:57.

19. Ibid., 46, 54–55; Michel DeGraff, “Relexification: A Reevaluation,”
Anthro-pological Linguistics,
44:4 (Winter 2002): 321–414.

20. Fick,
Making of Haiti,
chap. 2; Donald Cosentino, ed.,
The Sacred Arts of
Haitian Vodou
(Los Angeles, 1995); Joan Dayan,
Haiti, History, and the Gods
(Berkeley, 1995); Karen McCarthy Brown,
Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in

Brooklyn
(Berkeley, 1992).

21. Moreau,
Description,
1:64–68; Fick,
Making of Haiti,
39–44.

22. Jean-François Dutrône de la Coutûre,
Précis sur la Canne et sur les moyens
de’en extraire le sel essentiel, suivi de plusières Mémoires
(Paris, 1791), 334; Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
135–136, 139, 153.

23. Dûtrone de la Coutûre,
Précis,
101–106; Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles
françaises,
97, 316.

24. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
90–91, 96, 98.

314

n o t e s t o p a g e s 4 0 – 4 6

25. Ibid., 142–144; Geggus, “Sugar and Coffee,” 76–77; Gros,
Isle de Saint-Domingue: Précis historique
(Paris, 1793), 21.

26. Barbara Bush, “Hard Labor: Women, Childbirth and Resistance in British

Caribbean Slave Societies,” in
More than Chattel: Black Women and Slavery in the
Americas,
ed. David Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine (Bloomington, 1996), 193–

217; Gauthier,
Soeurs de solitude,
chap. 4, esp. 107–120; David Geggus, “Les Esclaves de la plaine du Nord à la veille de la Révolution française,”
Revue de la
Société Haïtienne d’Histoire et de Géographie
142 (1984): 15–44, 34; Moreau,
Description,
3:1272; Descourtilz,
Voyages d’un naturaliste,
3:117–120.

27. See Gauthier,
Soeurs de
s
olitude,
168–172.

28. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
chap. 11.

29. Ibid., 183, 193–95; Moreau,
Description,
3:1239.

30. Moreau,
Description
1:435–436, 2:679–680; 1:162–163; Sidney Mintz,
Caribbean Transformations
(New York, 1979).

31. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
156, 243–244; Moreau,
Description,
1:338; Sue Peabody, “‘A Dangerous Zeal’: Catholic Missions to Slaves in the French Antilles, 1635–1800,”
French Historical Studies
25, 1 (2002): 53–90, 82.

32. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
156, 243–244; Moreau,
Description,
1:63–64, 243; 3:1038.

33. Louis Sala-Moulins,
Le Code Noir, ou le calvaire de Canaan
(Paris, 1987), 122–124; Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
156.

34. James Stephens,
The Crisis of the Sugar Colonies; or, an Enquiry into the
Objects and Probable Effects of the French Expedition to the West Indies
(1802; reprint, New York, 1969), 72; Pierre de Vassière,
Saint-Domingue: La société et la vie
créoles sous l’ancien régime, 1629–1789
(Paris, 1909), 189–190; Fick,
Making of
Haiti,
37.

35. De Vassière,
Saint-Domingue,
190–194; C. L. R. James,
The Black Jacobins:
Toussaint Louverture and the San Domingo Revolution
(1938; reprint, New York, 1963), 12–13.

36. Pierre Pluchon,
Vaudou, sorciers, empoissoneurs de Saint-Domingue à

Haïti
(Paris, 1987), 170–172; Moreau,
Description,
1:630–631.

37. Moreau,
Description,
1:631; David Geggus, “Marronage, Voodoo, and Saint-Domingue,” in
Proceedings of the Fifteenth Meeting of the French Colonial
Historical Society,
ed. Patricia Galloway and Philip Boucher (Lanham, Md., 1992), 22–35, 29; Peabody, “‘A Dangerous Zeal,’” 79.

38. Fick,
Making of Haiti,
59–63; Moreau,
Description,
1:630–631.

39. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
422–424, 441, 446–452, 460; Gauthier,
Soeurs de solitude,
227–238; Jean Fouchard,
Les Marrons de la liberté
(Paris, 1972); Yvan Debbasch, “Le Marronage: Essai sur la désertion de l’esclave antillais,”
L’Année Sociologique,
1961, 1–112.

n o t e s t o p a g e s 4 7 – 5 2

315

40. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
156, 452.

41. Ibid., 432, 457–458.

42. Sala-Moulins,
Code Noir,
166; Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
432–433, 453, 465.

43. Moreau,
Description,
1:163, 183.

44. Gauthier,
Soeurs de solitude,
231, 243; Pluchon,
Vaudou,
179.

45. Fouchard,
Les Marrons;
Fick,
Making of Haiti,
chap. 2; Geggus,

“Marronage, Voodoo, and Saint-Domingue.”

46. Robin Blackburn,
The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery
(London, 1989), 208, emphasizes this point, as does Fick,
Making of Haiti.

47. Debien,
Esclaves aux Antilles françaises,
402; Pluchon,
Vaudou.

48. Pluchon,
Vaudou,
176.

49. Malick Walid Ghachem, “Sovereignty and Slavery in the Age of Revolu-

tion: Haitian Variations on a Metropolitan Theme” (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 2001), 259–278; de Vassière,
Saint-Domingue,
186–188; Fick,
Making of Haiti,
37–38.

50. Fick,
Making of Haiti,
62; Pluchon,
Vaudou,
80;
Songs, Choruses, &c in
King Caesar; or, the Negro Slaves
(London, 1801).

51. Louis Sebastien Mercier,
L’An deux mille cent quarante: Rêve s’il en fût
jamais
(1770; reprint Paris, 1977), 127.

52. Guillaume Thomas Raynal,
Histoire philosophique et politique des

établissements et du commerce des Européens dans les Deux Indes
(Geneva, 1780), 3:204–205.

53. Mercier,
L’An,
1:184; Marcel Dorigny, “Le Mouvement abolitionniste français face à l’insurrection de Saint-Domingue ou la fin du mythe de l’abolition graduelle,” in
L’Insurrection des esclaves de Saint-Domingue (22–23 août 1791),
ed. Laennec Hurbon (Paris, 2000), 97–113.

54. Mercier,
L’An,
3:8; see also generally Michèle Duchet,
Anthropologie et histoire
au siècle des lumières
(Paris, 1971); and Edward Seeber,
Anti-Slavery Opinion in
France during the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century
(Baltimore, 1937).

55. Jean-Philippe Garran-Coulon,
Rapport sur les troubles de Saint-Domingue
(Paris, 1798–99), 4:18; Abbé Grégoire,
Mémoire en faveur des gens de couleur ou
sang-mêlés de St.-Domingue, & des autres Isles françoises d’Amérique, adresse à
l’Assemblée Nationale
(Paris, 1789), 33, 36.