Ancient Iraq (58 page)

Chapter 13

1
.
H. W. F. SAGGS
,
Everyday Life in Babylonia and Assyria
, London, 1965;
S. DALLEY
Mari and Karana, Two Old Babylonian Cities
, London, 1984, pp. 50 – 111.

2
. On Shimshara:
J. LASSØE
,
The Shemshara Tablets, a Preliminary Report
, Copenhagen, 1959;
People of Ancient Assyria
, London, 1963. Tell al-Rimah lies 60 kilometres west of Mosul. British excavations from 1964 to 1971. Preliminary reports in
Iraq
, XVII (1965) to XXIV (1972). Summary by D. os in J. CURTIS (ed.),
Fifty Years of Mesopotamian Discovery
, London, 1983, pp. 86 – 98. The identification of this mound as ancient
Karana
is debated. Archives published by
S. DALLEY
,
C. B. F. WALKER
and
J. D. HAWKINS
:
The Old Babylonian Tablets from Tell al-Rimah
, London, 1976.

3
. Street chapels of
PA.SAG
, Ninshubur and unidentified minor gods at Ur:
SIR LEONARD WOOLLEY
,
AJ
, X (1930), pp. 368 – 72;
Excavations at Ur
, pp. 190 – 92;
D. J. WISEMAN
, ‘The goddess Lama at Ur’,
Iraq
, XXII (1960), pp. 166 – 71;
SIR LEONARD WOOLLEY, SIR MAX MALLOWAN
and
T. C. MITCHELL
(ed.),
Ur Excavations: The Old Babylonian Period
(UE VII), London, 1976.

4.
Examples: temple of Hani and Nisaba at Tell Harmal,
Sumer
, II (1946), pp. 23 – 4; temple of Ishtar-Kititum at Ischâli,
IOC
, XX (1936), pp. 74 – 98.

5
. The principal temples in that period are those of Ischâli, Assur, Tell Leilan, Tell al-Rimah and Larsa, and the temple of the goddess Ningal at Ur. General view in
E. HEINRICH
,
Die Tempel und Heiligtümer im alten Mesopotamien
, Berlin, 1982.

6
. For details on temples and cults, apart from general books on Mesopotamian religion, see:
Le Temple et le Culte, compte-rendu de la XXe Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale
, Leiden, 1972.

7
.
R. S. ELLIS
,
Foundation Deposits in Ancient Mesopotamia
, New Haven and London, 1967.

8
. On the difficult subject of Mesopotamian music, as reconstructed from Hurrian tablets of ‘score’, see:
D. WULSTAND
,
Music and Letters
, LII (1971), pp. 365 – 82;
A. KILMER
,
RA
, LXVIII (1974), pp. 69 – 82;
M. DUCHESNE-GUILLEMIN
, ‘Déchiffrement de la musique babylonienne’,
Academia dei Lincei
, Roma, 1977, pp. 1–25.

9
. The studies on Neo-Sumerian feasts published by
H. SAUREN
and
H. LIMET
in
Actes de la 17ème Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale
, Ham-sur-Heure, Belgium, 1970, pp. 11 – 29 and 59 – 74, would probably apply to the Old Babylonian period with minor changes.

10
.
F. THUREAU-DANGIN
,
Rituels Accadiens
, Paris, 1907, p. 10 ff. (Cf.
ANET
, pp. 334 – 8.) This ritual dates, in fact, to the Hellenistic period, but it certainly reproduces a much older original.

11
. The fundamental study on priests in the Old Babylonian period is that of
J. RENGER
, ‘Untersuchungen zum Priestertum der altbabylonischen Zeit’,
ZA
, XXIV (1967), pp. 110 – 98; XXV (1969), pp. 104 – 230.

12
. See:
R. HARRIS
, article ‘Hierodulen’ in
RLA
, IV, pp. 151 – 5; J. BOTTERO, article Homosexualitat' in
RLA
, IV, pp. 459 – 68.

13
.
R. HARRIS
, The
naditu
woman’. in
Studies presented to A. L. Oppenheim
, Chicago, 1964, pp. 106 – 35, and
Ancient Sippar
, Leiden, 1975, pp. 305 – 12.

14
. The priests received part of the offerings and of the animals sacrificed in proportions fixed by royal decree. See, for instance, the stone-tablet of Nabû-apal-iddina, King of Babylon, in
BBS
, pp. 120 – 27.

15
.
A. PARROT
,
Mission Archéologique à Mari
, III, Le Palais, 3 vol., Paris, 1958 – 9.
J. MARGUERON
,
Recherches sur les Palais Mésopotamiens de l'Age du Bronze
, Paris, 1982, pp. 209 – 380. Three other palaces are known for that period: Sin-kashid's palace at Uruk, the palace of the kings of Eshnunna at Tell Asmar and the palace at Tell al-Rimah. All three figures in Margueron, op. cit.

16
.
H. VINCENT
,
Revue Biblique
(1939), p. 156.

17.
G. DOSSIN
,
Syria
, XVIII (1937), pp. 74 – 5.

18
.
A. PARROT
,
Le Palais, II; Sumer
, fig. 254 – 9;
B. PIERRE
, ‘Décor peint à Mari et au Proche-Orient’,
MARI
, 3, Paris, 1984.

19
.
A. PARROT
,
Mari, une Ville Perdue
, Paris, 1938, p. 161.

20
.
J. BOTTERO
, article ‘Küche’ in
RLA
, VI, pp. 277 – 98. ‘La plus vieille cuisine du monde’,
L'Histoire
(Paris), XLIX (1982), pp. 72 – 82.

21
.
ARMT
, I, 64; IV, 79.

22
. Modern Tell Ashara, on the Euphrates, 72 kilometres north of Mari. American excavations are in progress. Preliminary reports in
Syro-Mesopotamian Studies
, Malibu, Calif., since 1977.

23
.
ARMT
, III, 62.

24
.
G. DOSSIN
, ‘Une révélation du dieu Dagan à Terqa’,
RA
, XLII (1948), pp. 125 – 34.

25
. A town on the lower Khabur, probably Tell Fedain.

26
. Examples taken from
ARMT
, II, 106; VI, 43; I, 89; II, 112 respectively.

27
. This was the usual opening sentence for letters. The sender spoke to the scribe who was to read the letter to the addressee.

28
.
SIR LEONARD WOOLLEY
,
UE
, VII, pp. 12 – 39; 95 – 165;
Ur of the Chaldees
, London, 1982, pp. 191 – 213.

29
.
C. J. GADD
, ‘Two sketches from the life at Ur’,
Iraq, XXV
(1963), pp. 177 – 88.

30
. For details, see:
H. W. F. SAGGS
,
Everyday Life in Babylonia and Assyria
; On house furniture and equipment:
A. SALONEN
,
Die Möbel der alten Mesopotamien
, Helsinki, 1963;
Die Hausgeräte der alten Mesopotamien
, Helsinki, 1965 – 6.

31
. On Mesopotamian schools, pupils and teachers, see:
C. J. GADD
,
Teachers and Students in the oldest Schools
, London, 1956;
A. W. SJOBERG
, ‘Der Vater und sein missratener Sohn’,
JCS
, XXV (1973), pp. 105 – 19; ‘The Old Babylonian Eduba’ in
Sumero-logical Studies in Honor of Thorkild Jacobsen
, Chicago, 1976, pp. 158 – 79.

31
.
AJ
, XI (1931), pp. 364 – 6.
Excavations at Ur
, pp. 186 – 7.

32
.
A. L. OPPENHEIM
,
JAOS
, 74 (1954), PP. 15, 17;
W. F. LEEMANS
,
The Old Babylonian Merchant
, Leiden, 1950, pp. 78 – 95;
Foreign Trade in the Old Babylonian Period
, Leiden, 1960, pp. 121 – 3 and 136 – 9.

Chapter 14

1
. As can be expected, there is a vast literature on the Indo-Europeans. For a general view of the subject, see
R. A. CROSS-AND
, ‘Immigrants from the North’,
CAH
, I, 2, pp. 824 – 76; G.
CARDONA, H. M. HOENIGSWALD
and
A. SEN
N (ed.),
Indo-European and Indo-Europeans
, Philadelphia, 1970, J.
P. MALLORY
,
In Search of the Indo-Europeans
, London, 1989.

2
.
V. G. CHILDE
,
The Dawn of European Civilization
, London, 1957;
P. BOSCH-GIMPERA
,
Les Indo-Européens: Problémes Archéologiques
, Paris, 1961;
M. GIMBUTAS
,
Bronze Age Cultures in Central and Eastern Europe
, The Hague, 1965.

3.
According to
C. RENFREW
,
Before Civilization
, Harmondsworth, 1976, the development of metallurgy in the Balkans was independent of Asiatic influences.

4
.
J. L. CASKEY
,
CAH
, I, 2, pp. 786 – 8, and II, 1, pp. 135 – 40; cf.
M. I. FINLEY
,
Early Greece: the Bronze and Archaic Ages
, London, 1970.

5
. See
J. CHADWICK
,
The Decipherment of Linear B
, Cambridge, 1959. See also:
S. DOW
and
J. CHADWICK
,
CAH
, I, 1, pp. 582 – 626.

6
. On the Minoan civilization, cf.
F. MATZ
in
CAH
, I, 1, pp. 141 – 64 and 557 – 81. See also:
S. HOOD
,
The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age
, London, 1971, and
N. PLATON
,
Crete
, London, 1971.

7
.
SIR MORTIMER WHEELER
, ‘The Indus civilization’,
CAH
(Supplementary Volume), 2nd ed., Cambridge, 1960;
Civilization of the Indus Valley and Beyond
, London, 1966.

8
.
G. F. DALES
, ‘Civilizations and floods in the Indus Valley’,
Expedition
, VII (1965), pp. 10 – 19;
J. P. AGRAWAL
and
S. KUSUM-GAR
,
Prehistoric Chronology and Radiocarbon Dating in India
, London, 1974.

9
.
J. MELLAART
,
Çatal Hüyük: a Neolithic Town in Anatolia
, London, 1967;
The Neolithic of the Near East
, London, 1975, pp. 98 – 111.

10
.
R. J.
and
L. S. BRAIDWOOD
,
Excavations in the Plain of Antioch
, I, Chicago, 1960;
M. J. MELLINK
, ‘The prehistory of Syro-Cilicia’,
Bi.Or
., XIX (1962), pp. 219 – 26.

11
.
J. MELLAART
, ‘Anatolia
c
. 4000 – 2300
B.C
.’,
CAH
, I, 2, pp. 363 – 416.

12
.
P. GARELLI
,
Les Assyriens en Cappadoce
, Paris, 1963;
L. L. ORLIN
,
Assyrian Colonies in Cappadocia
, The Hague/Paris, 1970;
M. T. LARSEN
,
Old Assyrian Caravan Procedures
, Istanbul, 1967;
The Old Assyrian City-State and its Colonies
, Copenhagen, 1976;
K. R. VEEN-HOF
, A
spects of Old Assyrian Trade and its Terminology
, Leiden, 1977.

13
. On the Hittites generally, see:
O. R. GURNEY
,
The Hittites
, London, 1980;
J. G. MACQUEEN
,
The Hittites and their Contemporaries in Asia Minor
, London, 1986.

14
. On the Hurrians generally, see:
I. J. GELB
,
Hurrians and Subarians
, Chicago, 1944; F. IMPARATI,
I Hurriti
, Firenze, 1964; G. WILHELM,
The Hurrians
, Warminster, 1989. Also see the articles published in
RHA
, XXXVI (1978) and in
Problémes Concernant les Hurrites
, 2 vol., Paris, 1977 – 84.

15
.
Alalah
is modern Tell Atchana, between Aleppo and Antioch. British excavations in 1936 – 9:
SIR LEONARD WOOLLEY
,
Alalah
, London, 1955;
A Forgotten Kingdom
, 2nd ed., Harmondsworth, 1959. Texts published by
D. J. WISEMAN
,
The Alalah Tablets
, London, 1953.

16
. The ancient town of Gasur, re-baptized Nuzi by the Hurrians, is Yorgan Tepe, 13 kilometres south-west of Kirkuk. American excavations from 1925 to 1931:
R. F. S. STARR
,
Nuzi: Report on the Excavations at Yorgan Tepe, near Kirkuk
, Cambridge, Mass., 1937 – 9. Bibliography on texts from Nuzi in
M. DIETRICH, O. LORETZ
and
W. MAYER
;
Nuzi Bibliography
, Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1972. Recent studies in
M. A. MORRISON
and
D.I. OWEN
(eds),
Studies on the Civilization and Culture of Nuzi and the Hurrians
, Winona Lake, Ind., 1981.

17
.
A. J. TOBLER
,
Excavations at Tepe Gawra, II,
Philadelphia, 1950; Tell Billa (Assyrian
Shibbaniba
), near Bashiqa (16 kilometres north-east of Mosul), was also excavated by the Americans from 1930 to 1933. Reports in
BASOR
, Nos. 40 to 60. The Hurrian level has yielded houses and pottery, but no texts.

18
. On horses in the Near East, see.
A. SALONEN
,
Hippologica Accadica
, Helsinki, 1956;
A. KAMMENHUBER
,
Hippologica Hethitica
, Wiesbaden, 1961;
J. A. H. POTRATZ
,
Die Pferdestrensen des alten Orients
, Roma, 1966.

19.
K. KENYON
,
Archaeology in the Holy Land
, London, 1960; J.
MELLART
,
Earliest Civilizations in the Near East
, pp. 22 – 46 and 57 – 62;
The Neolithic of the Near East
, pp. 227 – 43. See also the chapters by
J. MELLAART, M. E. L. MALLOWAN
and
R. DE VAUX
in
CAH
, I, I, pp. 264 – 70, 282 – 4, 413 – 21, and
CAH
, I, 2, pp. 208 – 37.

20
. Syria:
H. KLENGEL
,
Geschichte Syriens im 2. Jahrtausend v.u.Z
, 3 vol., Berlin, 1965 – 70;
Geschichte und Kultur Altsyriens
, Wien-München, 1980. Palestine:
R. DE VAUX
,
Histoire Ancienne d'Israël des Origines á l'Installation en Canaan
, Paris, 1971. Egypt:
A. H. GARDINER
,
Egypt of The Pharaohs
, Oxford, 1961.

21
. Ugarit (modern Ras Shamra) lies about 10 kilometres north of the Syrian port of Lattaqieh. French excavations since 1928. Preliminary reports in
Syria
, 1929 ff. and
AAAS
, 1951 ff. Short synthesis in
Ras Shamra 1929 – 1979
, Lyons, 1979. Also see:
G. SAADE
,
Ougarit, Métropole Cananéenne
, Beirut 1979.

22
.
W. A. WARD
, ‘Egypt and the East Mediterranean in the early second millennium
B.C.
’,
Orientalia
, XXX (1961), pp. 22 – 45, 129 – 55.

23
.
W. F. ALBRIGHT
,
The Archaeology of Palestine
, Harmondsworth, 1954, p. 80.

24
.
R. DE VAUX
, op. cit., pp. 245 – 53, with discussion on the date of Abraham's entry into Palestine.

25
.
J. BOTTERO
,
Le Problèmes des Habiru à la 4ème Rencontre Assyri-ologique Internationale
, Paris, 1954;
M. GREENBERG
,
The Hab/piru
, New Haven, 1955. See also:
J. BOTTERO
, ‘Habiru’,
RLA
, IV (1972), pp. 14 – 27.