Ancient Iraq (60 page)

Chapter 17

1
.
R. D. BARNETT
, ‘The Sea-Peoples’,
CAH
, II, 2, pp. 359 – 78.
N. K. SANDARS
,
The Sea-Peoples, Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean, 1250 – 1150
B.C
, London, 1978;
R. A. MACALISTER
,
The Philistines, their History and Civilization
, Chicago, 1965.

2
. Later, the
Parsua
moved to the south-western part of Iran, occupied a district in the Bakhtiari mountains close to Elam and gave it their name:
Parsu(m) ash
, Persia, Fars. (See.
R. GHIRSHMAN
,
Iran
, Harmondsworth, 1954, pp. 91 and 119.)

3
.
W. F. ALBRIGHT
,
From the Stone Age to Christianity
, 2nd ed., New York, 1957, pp. 13 and 255. See also:
O. EISSFELD
,
CAH
, II, 2, pp. 307 – 30. This author favours a date of
c
. 1400
B.C
. for the entry into Egypt.

4
.
I Kings i-ix; II Chronicles
i – ix.
O. EISSFELD
, ‘The Hebrew Kingdom’,
CAH
, II, 2, pp. 537 – 605.

5
. Cf.
A. SCHAEFER
,
Ugaritica
I, Paris, 1939, pp. 43 – 6;
J. NOUGAYROL
, ‘Guerre et paix à Ugarit’,
Iraq
, XXV (1963), pp. 120 – 21.
M. C. ASTOUR
, ‘New evidence for the last days of Ugarit’,
AJA
, LXIX (1965), pp. 253 – 8.

6
.
I Kings
v. 1 – 12; vii. 13 ff.; ix. 11 – 14;
II Chronicles
ii. 3 – 16; iv. 11 – 18.

7
. On the civilization of the Phoenicians, see:
D. HARDEN
,
The Phoenicians
, London, 1962;
S. MOSCATI
,
The World of the Phoenicians
, London, 1973;
A. PARROT, M. H. CHEHAB, S. MOSCATI
,
Les Phéniciens
, Paris, 1975.

8
. On the alphabet, cf.
G. R. DRIVER
,
Semitic Writing
, Oxford, 1948;
D. DIRINGER
The Alphabet
, London, 1948;
J. G. FEVRIER
,
Histoire de l'Ecriture
, Paris, 1948;
I. J. GELB
,
A Study of Writing
, London, 1952.

9
.
C. H. GORDON
,
Ugaritic Literature
, Roma, 1949;
G. R. DRIVER
,
Canaanite Myths and Legends
, Edinburgh, 1956;
ANET
, pp. 130 – 55.

10
. On the Neo-Hittites generally see:
O. GURNEY
,
The Hittites
, London, 1980, pp. 41 – 7; J. D. HAWKINS, article ‘Hatti, the first millennium
B.C
.’ in
RLA
, IV, pp. 152 – 9. On writing and grammar,
E. LAROCHE
,
Les Hiéroglyphes Hittites
, Paris, 1960. For a list of hieroglyphic inscriptions, see E. LAROCHE, ‘Liste des documents hiéroglyphiques‘,
RHA
, XXVII (1969), pp. 110 – 31.

11
.
SETON LLOYD
,
Early Anatolia
, Harmondsworth, 1956, pp. 177 – 82. Good summary in the articles by I. J.
GELB
and M. J.
MELLINK
in
Bi.Or
., VII (1950), pp. 129 – 50.

12
.
J. D. HAWKINS
, ‘Assyrians and Hittites’,
Iraq
, XXXVI (1974), pp. 67 – 83.

13
. On the Aramaeans in general, cf.
S. SCHIFFER
,
Die Aramaer
, Leipzig, 1911;
E. G. KRAELING
,
Aram and Israel
, New York, 1918;
R. T. O'CALLAGHAN
,
Aram Naharaim
, Rome, 1948, pp. 93 – 130;
A. DUPONT-SOMMER
,
Les Aramëens
, Paris, 1949;
A. MALAMAT
‘The Aramaeans’, in
D. J. WISEMAN
(ed.),
Peoples of Old Testament Times
, London, 1973, pp. 134 – 55.

14
.
Deuteronomy
xxvi. 5.

15
.
ARAB
, I, § 166.

16
.
S. MOSCATI
, ‘The Aramaean Ahlamû’,
JSS
, IV (1959), pp. 303 – 7.

17
.
M. FREIHERR VON OPPENHEIM
,
Der Tell Halaf
, Leipzig, 1931, pp. 71 – 198, and
Tell Halaf II, Die Bauwerke,
Berlin, 1950;
A. MOORTGAT
Tell Halaf, III, Die Bildwerke,
Berlin, 1955;
B. HROUDA
,
Tell Halaf IV, Die Kleinfunde aus historischer Zeit,
Berlin, 1962.

18
.
P. GARELLI
, ‘Importance et rôle des Araméens dans l'administration de l'empire assyrien’ in
H. J. NISSEN
and
J. RENGER
(ed.),
Mesopotamien und seine Nachbarn
, Berlin, 1982, II, pp. 437 – 47;
H. TADMOR
, ‘The aramaization of Assyria: aspects of western impact’,
ibid
., pp. 449 – 70.

19
. On this and following periods, see:
J. A. BRINKMAN
,
A Political History of Post-Kassite Babylonia (1158 – 722
), Rome, 1968.

20
. On this curious text of ‘lamentation’, see
H. TADMOR
, ‘Historical implications of the correct rendering of Akkadian
dâku’, JNES
, XVII (1958), pp. 138 – 9. Cf.
CAH
, II, 2, p. 501.

21
. L. KING,
BBS
, No. VI, pp. 29 – 36.

22
.
W. G. LAMBERT
, ‘The reign of Nebuchadnezzar I: a turning point in the history of ancient Mesopotamian religion’ in
W. S. MCCULLOUGH
(ed.),
The Seed of Wisdom
, Toronto, 1964, pp. 3 – 13.

23
.
ARAB
, I, § 257 (Inscription of Tiglathpileser I).

24
.
ARAB
, I, § 300 – 303;
ANET
, pp. 274 – 5.

25
.
ARAB
, I, § 309. Cf.
E. WEIDNER
, ‘Die Feldzüge and Bauten Tiglatpilesers I,
AfO
, XVIII (1958), pp. 342 – 60.

26
. Stone tablet of Nabû-apal-iddina (885 – 852
B.C.
), Col. I, 4 – 5. (
L. KING
,
BBS
, p. 121.)

27
.
L. W. KING
,
Chronicles
, II, pp. 143 – 79. Cf. in particular, the ‘Religious chronicle’ (
ABC
, pp. 133 – 8); some parts of the ‘Dynastic chronicle’ (
ABC
, pp. 139 – 44) and a fragment of Assyrian chronicle (
ABC
, p. 189).

28
.
P. GÖSSMANN
,
Das Erra-Epos
, Würzburg, 1955;
L. CAGNI
,
L'epopea di Erra, Rome
, 1969. Cf.
R. BORGER
and
W. G. LAMBERT
,
Orientalia
, XXVII (1958) pp. 137 – 49.

29
. ‘Religious chronicle’, III, 4 – 15 (
ABC
, pp. 137 – 8).

30
.
M. DIETRICH
,
Die Aramäer Südbabyloniens in der Sargonidenzeit
(700 – 648), Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1970. Cf.
F. MALBRAN
in
Journal Asiatique
, Paris, 1972, pp. 15 – 38.

Chapter 18

1.
Exactly since Ninurta apal-ekur (1192 – 1180
B.C.
).

2
. The main sources for the political history of the so-called Neo-Assyrian period are (1) the Assyrian royal inscriptions translated by
D. LUCKENBILL
,
Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia (ARAB)
, 2 vol., Chicago, 1926–7, and, partly, by
A. K. GRAYSON
,
Assyrian Royal Inscriptions (ARI)
, 2 vol., Wiesbaden, 1972 – 6; (2) the Babylonian royal inscription to be found in
J. A. BRINKMAN
,
A Political History of Post-Kassite Babylonia (PKB)
, Roma, 1967: (3) the Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles translated by
A. K. GRAYSON
,
Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (ABC)
, Locust Valley (New York), 1975; (4) the royal correspondence from Nineveh published by
R. F. HARPER
,
Assyrian and Babylonian Letters belonging to the Kuyunjik Collection of the British Museum (ABL)
, 14 vol., London/Chicago, 1892 – 1914, and translated by
LEROY WATERMAN
,
Royal Correspondence of the Assyrian Empire (RCAE)
, 4 vol., Ann Arbor, Mich., 1930 – 36; (5) the royal correspondence from Nimrud published and translated by
D. J. WISEMAN, H. W. SAGGS, J. V. KINNIER WILSON
and
B. PARKER
in
Iraq
, XII (1950) to XXVIII (1966); the remarkable series
State Archives of Assyria (SAA)
,
K. DELLER
et al
. (ed.), 5 volumes published, Helsinki, 1987 ff.; the
Old Testament
, notably
II Kings, II Chronicles, Prophets
. For a general view of the Assyrians and Assyria, see:
H. W. F. SAGGS
,
The Might that was Assyria
, London, 1984.

3
. Inscriptions of Adad-nirâri II in
ARAB
, I, §§ 355 – 99 and
ARI
, II, § 394 – 460.

4
.
ARAB
, I, § 360;
ARI
, II, §§ 420, 422;
Synchr. History
, III, 1 – 6 (
ABC
, p. 166). Cf.
PKB
, pp. 177 – 80.

5
.
Synchr. History
, III, 9 – 21 (
ABC
p. 166). Cf.
PKB
, pp. 180 – 82.

6
.
ARAB, I
, § 402 – 34; ARI, II, § 464 – 88. Also see:
W. SCHRAMM
, ‘Die Annalen des assyrischen Konigs Tukulti-Ninurta II’,
Bi. Or., XXVII
(1970), pp. 147 – 60.

7
. On this subject see
W. G LAMBERT
, ‘The reigns of Assurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III, an interpretation’,
Iraq
, XXXVI (1974), pp. 103 – 6;
H. TADMOR
, ‘Assyria and the West: the ninth century and its aftermath’ in
H. GOEDICKE
and
J. J. ROBERTS
(ed.),
Unity and Diversity
, Baltimore, 1975, pp. 36 – 48;
A. K. GRAYSON
, ‘Studies in Neo-Assyrian history: the ninth century
B.C
.’, XXXIII (1976), pp. 134 – 45;
M. LIVERANI
, The ideology of the Assyrian empire’ in
M. T. LARSEN
(ed.),
Power and Propaganda
, Copenhagen, 1979, pp. 297 – 317;
J. READE
, Ideology and propaganda in Assyrian Arts',
ibid
., pp. 329 – 43.

8
.
D. G. HOGARTH
,
The Ancient Near East
, London, 1950, p. 25.

9
. It was only in the Middle-Assyrian period (XIII – XIth centuries) that Ashur became a dominant war god. In an Assyrian version of the Epic of Creation (
enuma elish
), he replaces Marduk at the second rank of the Mesopotamian pantheon.

10
.
F. M. FALES
; ‘The enemy in the Neo-Assyrian inscriptions: the “moral judgement”’, in
H. J. NISSEN
and
J. RENGER
(ed.),
Mesopotamien und seine Nachbarn
, Berlin, 1982, II, pp. 425 – 35.

11
.
ARAB
, I, § 466, 501 – 2;
ARI
, II, §§ 574, 641. The talent (
biltu
) was about 33 kilos and the
gur
, about 70 litres.

12
. See
A. T. OLMSTEAD
,
History of Assyria
, New York, 1923, pp. 530 – 32.

13
.
J. N. POSTGATE
,
Taxation and Conscription in the Assyrian Empire
, Rome, 1974, pp. 201 – 2.

14
.
AAO
, pl. 82;
A. PARROT
,
Assur
, Paris, 1961, pls. 22 – 3.

15
. Inscriptions of Ashurnasirpal in
ARAB
, I, §§ 436 – 552,
ARI
, II §§ 529 – 869. Also:
E. MICHEL
, ‘Die Texte Assur-nasir-aplis II’,
Die Welt der Orient
II (1954), pp. 313 – 21, 404 – 7.

16.
ARAB
, I, § 443.
ARI
, II, § 587.

17
.
ANET
, p. 276;
ARAB
, I, §§ 479, 518;
ARI
, II, § 586.

18
.
Tushhan
is Kurkh, twenty miles south of Diarbakr.
Kar-Ashurnasirpal
and
Nibarti-Ashur
, facing each other on either side of the Euphrates, are probably Zalabiyah and Halabiyah, between Raqqa and Deir-ez-Zor.

19
.
ARAB
, I, §§ 443, 445, 472;
ARI
, II, §§ 547, 549, 579.

20
. For a reappraisal of Assyrian ‘cruelty’, see
H. W. F. SAGGS
, ‘Assyrian prisoners of war and the right to live’,
AfO, Beiheft
19 (1982), pp. 85 – 93. Also see the remarks of
A. T. OLMSTEAD
, ‘The calculated frightfulness of Ashur-nasir-apal‘,
JAOS
, XXXVIII (1918), pp. 209 – 63.

21
.
ARAB
, I, § 489;
ARI
, II, § 653.

22
.
A. H. LAYARD
,
Nineveh and its Remains
, London, 1849;
Nineveh and Babylon
, London, 1882.

23
. British excavations from 1949 to 1963. Preliminary reports in
Iraq
, XII (1950) to XXV (1963). Final report:
M. E. L. MALLOWAN
,
Nimrud and its Remains
, 2 vol., London, 1966. Summaries in
M. E. L. MALLOWAN
,
Twenty-five Years of Mesopotamian Discovery
, London, 1956, pp. 45 – 78, and in
J. CURTIS
(ed.),
Fifty Years of Mesopotamian Discovery
, London, 1982, pp. 99 – 112. Polish excavations from 1972 to 1982. Summarized by
R. SOBOLEwSKI in ZA
, LXXI (1982), pp. 248 – 73. Iraqi restorations and excavations since 1970.

24
.
D. J. WISEMAN
, ‘A new stele of Assur-nasir-pal’,
Iraq
, XIV (1952), pp. 23 – 39.

25
.
AAO
, pl. 93.

26
.
D. OATES
‘Fort Shalmaneser. An interim report‘,
Iraq
, XXI (1959), pp. 98 – 129; ‘The excavations at Nimrud‘, 1960,
Iraq
, XXIII (1961), pp. 1 – 14,
J. LAESSØE
, ‘A statue of Shalmaneser III, from Nimrud‘,
Iraq
, XXI (1959), pp. 147 – 57.

27
.
H. RASSAM
,
Asshur and the Land of Nimrod
, New York, 1897;
D. OATES
, ‘Balawat (Imgur-Enlil’),
Iraq
, XXXVI (1974), pp. 173 – 8; J.
CURTIS
, ‘Balawat‘, in
Fifty Years of Mesopotamian Discovery
, pp. 113 – 19. On the gates:
L. W. KING
,
Bronze Reliefs from the Gates of Shalmaneser
, London, 1915. Cf.
AAO
, pl. 91, 92;
A. PARROT
,
Assur
, pl. 121 – 9.

28
. To the inscriptions published in
ARAB
, I, §§ 553 – 612, add now;
G. G. CAMERON
, ‘The annals of Shalmaneser III, a new text’,
Sumer
, VI (1950), pp. 6 – 26;
FUAD SAFAR
, ‘A further text of Shalmaneser III,
Sumer
, VII (1951), pp. 3 – 21;
J. LAESSØE
, ‘Building inscriptions from Fort Shalmaneser’,
Iraq
, XXI (1959), pp. 38 – 41. Poetic version of the campaign in Urartu:
W. G. LAMBERT
, ‘The Sultantepe tablets, VIII, Shalmaneser in Ararat’,
Anatolian Studies
, XI (1961), pp. 143 – 58.
J. V. KINNIER WILSON
, ‘The Kurba‘il statue of Shalmaneser III’,
Iraq
, XXIV (1962), pp. 90 – 115.

29
. French excavations 1929 – 31:
F. THUREAU-DANGIN
and
M. DUNAND
,
Til-Barsib
, Paris, 1936.

30
.
ARAB
, I, § 611;
ANET
, p. 279. Note that this is the first historical mention of the Arabs.

31
.
ARAB
, I, § 681. Cf.
II Kings
viii. 7 – 15.

32
.
BBS
, pp. 120 – 27.

33
.
ARAB
, I, § 624.
Synchr. Hist
. III, 22 – 35 (
ABC
, p. 167).

34
A throne-base found at Nimrud shows Shalmaneser shaking hands with Marduk-zakir-shumi. Cf.
D. OATES
,
Iraq
, XXV (1963), pp. 20 – 21, and
P. HULIN
,
ibid
., pp. 48 – 69.