Anatomy of an Epidemic (56 page)

1.
D. Healy,
Mania
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 16, 41, 43.

2.
I calculated these estimates by applying the 25 percent figure to the 1955 data on patients in state and county mental hospitals with a diagnosis of manic-depressive illness.

3.
C. Silverman,
The Epidemiology of Depression
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968), 139.

4.
G. Winokur,
Manic Depressive Illness
(St. Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company, 1969), 19.

5.
F. Wertham, “A group of benign chronic psychoses,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
9 (1929): 17–78.

6.
G. Lundquist, “Prognosis and course in manic-depressive psychoses,”
Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
, suppl. 35 (1945): 7–93.

7.
M. Tsuang, “Long-term outcome of major psychoses,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
36 (1979): 1295–1301.

8.
Winokur,
Manic Depressive Illness
, 21.

9.
NIMH,
The Numbers Count: Mental Disorders in America
, accessed at
www.nimh.nih.gov
on 3/7/2008.

10.
C. Baethge, “Substance abuse in first-episode bipolar I disorder,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
162 (2005): 1008–10; E. Frank, “Association between illicit drug and
alcohol use and first manic episode,”
Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior
86 (2007): 395–400.

11.
S. Strakowski, “The effects of antecedent substance abuse on the development of first-episode psychotic mania,”
Journal of Psychiatric Research
30 (1996): 59–68.

12.
J. Goldberg, “Overdiagnosis of bipolar disorder among substance use disorder inpatients with mood instability,”
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
69 (2008): 1751–57.

13.
M. Van Laar, “Does cannabis use predict the first incidence of mood and anxiety disorders in the adult population?”
Addiction
102 (2007): 1251–60.

14.
G. Crane, “The psychiatric side effects of iproniazid,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
112 (1956): 494–501.

15.
J. Angst, “Switch from depression to mania,”
Psychopathology
18 (1985): 140–54.

16.
American Psychiatric Association,
Practice Guidelines for Major Depressive Disorder in Adults
(Washington, DC: APA, 1993), 22.

17.
A. Martin, “Age effects on antidepressant-induced manic conversion,”
Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine
158 (2004): 773–80.

18.
J. Goldberg, “Risk for bipolar illness in patients initially hospitalized for unipolar depression,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
158 (2001): 1265–70.

19.
R. El-Mallakh, “Use of antidepressants to treat depression in bipolar disorder,”
Psychiatric Services
53 (2002): 58–84.

20.
Interview with Fred Goodwin, “Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of bipolar disorder,”
Primary Psychiatry
, accessed via Internet on 3/6/09 at
primarypsychiatry.com
.

21.
G. Fava, “Can long-term treatment with antidepressant drugs worsen the course of depression?”
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
64 (2003): 123–33.

22.
L. Judd, “The prevalence and disability of bipolar spectrum disorders in the US population,”
Journal of Affective Disorders
73 (2003): 123–31.

23.
J. Angst, “Toward a re-definition of subthreshold bipolarity,”
Journal of Affective Disorders
73 (2003): 133–46.

24.
Ibid; Judd, “The prevalence and disability.”

25.
R. Fieve,
Moodswing
(New York: William Morrow and Company, 1975), 13.

26.
For a history of lithium, see Healy,
Mania
, and J. Moncrieff,
The Myth of the Chemical Cure
(New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008).

27.
S. Tyrer, “Lithium in the treatment of mania,”
Journal of Affective Disorders
8 (1985): 251–57.

28.
J. Baker, “Outcomes of lithium discontinuation,”
Lithium
5 (1994): 187–92.

29.
R. Baldessarini, “Discontinuing lithium maintenance treatment in bipolar disorders,”
Bipolar Disorders
1 (1999): 17–24.

30.
G. Faedda, “Outcome after rapid v. gradual discontinuation of lithium treatment in bipolar disorders,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
50 (1993): 448–55.

31.
J. Himmelhoch, “On the failure to recognize lithium failure,”
Psychiatric Annals
24 (1994): 241–50.

32.
J. Moncrieff,
The Myth of the Chemical Cure
(London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 199.

33.
G. Goodwin, “Recurrence of mania after lithium withdrawal,”
British Journal of Psychiatry
164 (1994): 149–52.

34.
H. Markar, “Efficacy of lithium prophylaxis in clinical practice,”
British Journal of Psychiatry
155 (1989): 496–500; J. Moncrieff, “Lithium revisited,”
British Journal of Psychiatry
167 (1995): 569–74.

35.
J. Goldberg, “Lithium treatment of bipolar affective disorders under naturalistic followup conditions,”
Psychopharmacology Bulletin
32 (1996): 47–54.

36.
M. Gitlin, “Relapse and impairment in bipolar disorder,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
152 (1995): 1635–40.

37.
J. Moncrieff, “Lithium: evidence reconsidered,”
British Journal of Psychiatry
171 (1997): 113–19.

38.
F. Goodwin,
Manic-Depressive Illness
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 647.

39.
A. Zis, “Major affective disorder as a recurrent illness,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
36 (1979): 835–39.

40.
A. Koukopoulos, “Rapid cyclers, temperament, and antidepressants,”
Comprehensive Psychiatry
24 (1983): 249–58.

41.
N. Ghaemi, “Diagnosing bipolar disorder and the effect of antidepressants,”
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
61 (2000): 804–809.

42.
N. Ghaemi, “Antidepressants in bipolar disorder,”
Bipolar Disorders
5 (2003): 421–33.

43.
R. El-Mallakh, “Use of antidepressants to treat depression in bipolar disorder,”
Psychiatric Services
53 (2002): 580–84.

44.
A. Koukopoulos, “Duration and stability of the rapid-cycling course,”
Journal of Affective Disorders
72 (2003): 75–85.

45.
R. El-Mallakh, “Antidepressant-associated chronic irritable dysphoria in bipolar disorder,”
Journal of Affective Disorders
84 (2005): 267–72.

46.
N. Ghaemi, “Treatment of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
165 (2008): 300–301.

47.
C. Schneck, “The prospective course of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
165 (2008): 370–77.

48.
L. Judd, “The long-term natural history of the weekly symptomatic status of bipolar I disorder,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
59 (2002): 530–37.

49.
L. Judd, “A prospective investigation of the natural history of the long-term weekly symptomatic status of bipolar II disorder,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
60 (2003): 261–69.

50.
R. Joffe, “A prospective, longitudinal study of percentage of time spent ill in patients with bipolar I or bipolar II disorders,”
Bipolar Disorders
6 (2004): 62–66.

51.
R. Post, “Morbidity in 258 bipolar outpatients followed for 1 year with daily prospective ratings on the NIMH life chart method,”
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
64 (2003): 680–90.

52.
L. Judd, “Residual symptom recovery from major affective episodes in bipolar disorders and rapid episode relapse/recurrence,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
65 (2008): 386–94.

53.
C. Zarate, “Functional impairment and cognition in bipolar disorder,”
Psychiatric Quarterly
71 (2000): 309–29.

54.
Gitlin, “Relapse and impairment.”

55.
P. Keck, “12-month outcome of patients with bipolar disorder following hospitalization for a manic or a mixed episode,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
155 (1998): 646–52.

56.
D. Kupfer, “Demographic and clinical characteristics of individuals in a bipolar disorder case registry,”
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
63 (2002): 120–25.

57.
N. Huxley, “Disability and its treatment in bipolar disorder patients,”
Bipolar Disorders
9 (2007): 183–96.

58.
T. Goldberg, “Contrasts between patients with affective disorders and patients with schizophrenia on a neuropsychological test battery,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
150 (1993): 1355–62.

59.
J. Zihl, “Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia and affective disorders,”
Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
97 (1998): 351–57.

60.
F. Dickerson, “Outpatients with schizophrenia and bipolar I disorder,”
Psychiatry Research
102 (2001): 21–27.

61.
G. Malhi, “Neuropsychological deficits and functional impairment in bipolar depression, hypomania and euthymia,”
Bipolar Disorders
9 (2007): 114–25.

62.
V. Balanza-Martinez, “Persistent cognitive dysfunctions in bipolar I disorder and schizophrenic patients,”
Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics
74 (2005): 113–19; A Martinez-Aran, “Functional outcome in bipolar disorder,”
Bipolar Disorders
9 (2007): 103–13.

63.
M. Pope, “Determinants of social functioning in bipolar disorder,”
Bipolar Disorders
9 (2007): 38–44.

64.
C. Zarate, “Antipsychotic drug side effect issues in bipolar manic patients,”
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
61, suppl. 8 (2000): 52–61.

65.
C. Zarate, “Functional impairment and cognition in bipolar disorder,”
Psychiatric Quarterly
71 (2000): 309–29.

66.
D. Kupfer, “The increasing medical burden in bipolar disorder,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
293 (2005): 2528–30.

67.
L. Citrome, “Toward convergence in the medication treatment of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia,”
Harvard Review of Psychiatry
13 (2005): 28–42.

68.
Huxley, “Disability and its treatment.”

69.
M. Harrow, “Factors involved in outcome and recovery in schizophrenia patients not on antipsychotic medications,”
Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders
195 (2007): 406–14.

70.
W. Eaton, “The burden of mental disorders,”
Epidemiology Review
30 (2008): 1–14.

1.
Interview with Amy Upham, June 14, 2009.

2.
M. Morgan, “Prospective analysis of premature mortality in schizophrenia in relation to health service engagement,”
Psychiatry Research
117 (2003): 127–35;
C. Colton, “Congruencies in increased mortality rates, years of potential life lost, and causes of death among public mental health clients in eight states,”
Preventing Chronic Disease
3 (April 2006).

3.
S. Saha, “A systematic review of mortality in schizophrenia,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
64 (2007): 1123–31; L. Appleby, “Sudden unexplained death in psychiatric in-patients,”
British Journal of Psychiatry
176 (2000): 405–406; M. Joukamaa, “Schizophrenia, neuroleptic medication, and mortality,”
British Journal of Psychiatry
188 (2006): 122–27.

1.
B. Carey, “What’s wrong with a child? Psychiatrists often disagree,”
New York Times
, November 11, 2006.

2.
R. Kessler, “Mood disorders in children and adolescents,”
Biological Psychiatry
49 (2001): 1002–14.

3.
J. O’Neal,
Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology Made Simple
(Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 2006), 6.

4.
R. Mayes,
Medicating Children
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 46.

5.
G. Jackson, “Postmodern psychiatry,” unpublished paper, September 2, 2002.

6.
Mayes,
Medicating Children
, 54.

7.
Ibid, 61.

8.
R. Mayes, “ADHD and the rise in stimulant use among children,”
Harvard Review of Psychiatry
16 (2008): 151–66.

9.
G. Golden, “Role of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in learning disabilities,”
Seminars in Neurology
11 (1991): 35–41.

10.
NIH Consensus Development Conference statement, “Diagnosis and treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,” November 16–18, 1998.

11.
P. Breggin,
Talking Back to Ritalin
(Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing, 2001), 180.

12.
S. Hyman, “Initiation and adaptation: a paradigm for understanding psychotropic drug action,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
153 (1996): 151–61.

13.
Breggin,
Talking Back to Ritalin
, 83.

14.
H. Rie, “Effects of methylphenidate on underachieving children,”
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
44 (1976): 250–60.

15.
C. Cunningham, “The effects of methylphenidate on the mother-child interactions of hyperactive identical twins,”
Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology
20 (1978): 634–42.

16.
N. Fiedler, “The effects of stimulant drugs on curiosity behaviors of hyperactive boys,”
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
11 (1983): 193–206.