After Tamerlane (79 page)

112
. Ibid., p. 7.

113
. Ibid., p. 8.

114
. Totman,
Early Modern Japan
, p. 138; Jansen,
Tokugawa World
, p. 35.

115
. See Y. Yonezawa and C. Yoshizawa,
Japanese Painting in the Literati Style
(Eng. trans. New York, 1974).

116
. Jinnai, ‘The Spatial Structure of Edo', p. 148.

117
. Totman,
Early Modern Japan
, p. 261.

118
. A. Reid,
Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680
(2 vols., New Haven, 1988, 1993), vol. 2, ch. 3.

119
. J. S. Trimingham,
A History of Islam in West Africa
(pbk edn, Oxford, 1970), pp. 131–6.

120
. Ibid., p. 122.

121
. B. Lewis,
The Muslim Discovery of Europe
(London, 1982), p. 237;.H. A. R. Gibb and H. Bowen,
Islamic Society and the West: A Study of the Impact of Western Civilisation on Moslem Culture in the Near East
, vol. 1:
Islamic Society in the Eighteenth Century
, pt 1 (London, 1950), p. 214.

122
. See J. Mokyr,
The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress
(Oxford, 1990), ch. 4.

123
. Trimingham,
Islam
, pp. 141–2.

124
. For a recent study of this period, I. Parvev,
Habsburgs and Ottomans between Vienna and Belgrade (1683–1739)
(New York, 1995).

125
. B. Masters,
The Origins of Western Economic Dominance in the Middle East: Mercantilism and the Islamic Economy in Aleppo
(New York, 1988); D. Goffman,
Izmir and the Levantine World, 1550–1650
(Seattle, 1990).

126
. Lewis,
Discovery
, p. 296.

127
.
Memoirs of the Baron de Tott on the Turks and the Tartars
(Eng. trans., 2 vols., 1785), vol. 2, p. 15; Lewis,
Discovery
, p. 153.

128
. P. Goubert,
Cent mille provinciaux au XVIIe siècle: Beauvais et les Beauvaisis de 1600 aá 1750
(pbk edn, Paris, 1968), pp. 172–3.

129
. Rifa'at Ali Abou El-Haj,
The Formation of the Modern State: The Ottoman Empire, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries
(Albany, NY, 1991), p. 10.

130
. Carol B. Stevens, ‘Modernising the Military: Peter the Great and Military Reform', in J. Kotilaine and M. Poe (eds.),
Modernising Muscovy: Reform and
Social Change in Seventeenth-Century Russia
(London, 2004), pp. 247–62, esp. pp. 258–9.

131
. See L. Valensi,
Le Maghreb avant la prise d'Algers (1800–1830)
(Paris, 1969); A. C. Hess, ‘The Forgotten Frontier: The Ottoman North African Provinces', in T. Naff and R. Owen (eds.),
Studies in Eighteenth-Century Islamic History
(Carbondale, Ill., 1977), pp. 71–83.

132
. H. Inalcik, ‘Centralization and Decentralization in Ottoman Administration', in Naff and Owen (eds.),
Islamic History
, pp. 38–46.

133
. See B. McGowan, ‘The Age of the Ayans, 1699–1812', in H. Inalcik with D. Quataert (eds.),
An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1914
(Cambridge, 1994), pp. 664–76.

134
. For Cairo's coffee trade, A. Raymond,
Artisans et commercçants au Caire au XVIIIe siècle
(Damascus, 1972), p. 144. For the rapid growth of Izmir, S. Faroqhi,
Towns and Townsmen of Ottoman Anatolia
(Cambridge, 1984), p. 6.

135
. J. Carswell, ‘From the Tulip to the Rose', in Naff and Owen (eds.),
Islamic History
, pp. 328–9.

136
. See S. Faroqhi, ‘Crisis and Change, 1590–1699', in Inalcik with Quataert (eds.),
Ottoman Empire
, p. 526, and McGowan, ‘The Age of the Ayans', p. 724.

137
. S. Blake,
Shahjahanabad: The Sovereign City in Mughal India 1639–1739
(Cambridge, 1991).

138
. R. M. Eaton,
The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier 1204–1760
(pbk edn, London, 1996), pp. 228 ff.

139
. C. A. Bayly,
Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars
:
North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion 1770–1870
(Cambridge, 1983), p. 155.

140
. T. Raychaudhuri and I. Habib (eds.),
The Cambridge Economic History of India
, vol. 1:
c.1200–1750
(Cambridge, 1982), p. 396; J. R. McLane,
Land and Local Kingship in Eighteenth Century Bengal
(Cambridge, 1993), p. 31.

141
. Raychaudhuri and Habib (eds.),
Economic History
, vol. 1, pp. 400–402.

142
. Ibid., p. 417.

143
. See the brilliant essay by F. Perlin, ‘Commercial Manufacture and the ‘‘Protoindustrialisation'' Thesis', in F. Perlin,
Unbroken Landscape: Commodity, Category, Sign and Identity: Their Production as Myth and Knowledge
(Aldershot, 1994), esp. pp. 81–2.

144
. E. Maclagan,
The Jesuits and the Great Moghul
(London, 1932), p. 268.

145
. Ibid., p. 269.

146
. Ibid., pp. 243 ff.

147
. L'Escaliot to Sir T. Browne, 28 Jan. 1664, in N. C. Kelkar and D. V. Apte (eds.),
English Records on Shivaji
(Poona, 1931), p. 73.

148
. Ibid., p. 374.

149
. S. Gordon,
Marathas, Marauders and State Formation in 18th Century India
(New Delhi, 1994), p. 28.

150
. Ibid., ch. 2.

151
. A. Wink,
Land and Sovereignty in India: Agrarian Society and Politics under the Eighteenth-Century Maratha Svarajya
(Cambridge, 1986), p. 40.

152
. See ibid., pp. 7,34.

153
. M. Alam,
The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh and the Punjab 1707–1748
(Delhi, 1986), p. 241.

154
. W. Irvine,
The Later Mughals
, vol. 2:
1719–1739
(Calcutta, 1922), p. 360.

155
. For the ‘nuclear zones' of the Mughal Empire, Jos Gommans,
Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and the Highroads to Empire 1500–1700
(London, 2002), p. 18.

156
. D. Ludden,
Peasant History in South India
(New Delhi, 1989), p. 74.

157
. See Perlin, ‘Commercial Manufacture'.

158
. For White's career, M. Collis,
Siamese White
(London, 1936).

159
. Forrest,
Lord Clive
, vol. 1, p. 26.

160
. G. R. G. Hambly, ‘The Emperor's Clothes', in S. Gordon (ed.),
Robes of Honour
(New Delhi, 2003), pp. 31–49, esp. p. 43.

161
. See the remarkable study by J. J. L. Gommans,
The Rise of the Indo-Afghan Empire, c.1710–1780
(Leiden, 1995).

162
. For a fascinating insight into Georgian politics, W. E. D. Allen,
Russian Embassies to the Georgian Kings (1589–1605)
, Hakluyt Society,2nd Series, 138 (2 vols., Cambridge, 1970), vol. 1, ‘Introduction'.

163
. L. Lockhart,
Nadir Shah
(London, 1938), p. 268.

164
. Ibid., p. 268; P. Sykes,
A History of Persia
(3rd edn, 2 vols., London, 1951), vol. 2, pp. 241 ff.

165
. Gommans,
Indo-Afghan Empire
, pp. 55 ff.

166
. Ibid., pp. 26–7.

167
. R. L. Canfield,
Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective
(Cambridge, 1991), p. 22.

168
. Lockhart,
Nadir Shah
, pp. 212 ff.

169
. Gommans,
Indo-Afghan Empire
, p. 177.

170
. De Vries and van der Woude,
The First Modern Economy
, p. 693.

1
. S. F. Dale,
Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade 1600–1750
(Cambridge, 1994).

2
. P. C. Perdue,
China Marches West
(Cambridge, Mass., 2005).

3
. For the politics of the upper Nile in the mid eighteenth century, J. J. Ewald,
Soldiers, Traders and Slaves: State Formation and Economic Transformation in the Greater Nile Valley 1700–1885
(Madison, 1990).

4
. The classic study is P. J. van der Merwe,
The Migrant Farmer in the History of the Cape Colony, 1657–1842
(1938; Eng. trans. Athens, O., 1995).

5
. W. P. Cumming, S. Hillier, D. B. Quinn and G. Williams,
The Exploration of North America 1630–1776
(London, 1974), pp. 233–4.

6
. Quoted in R. J. Bonney, ‘The Eighteenth Century II: The Struggle for Great Power Status and the End of the Old Fiscal Regime', in R. J. Bonney (ed.),
Economic Systems and State Finance
(Oxford, 1995), p. 315.

7
. The best introduction to this region remains W. H. McNeill,
Europe's Steppe Frontier
(London, 1974).

8
. According to a French inquiry in 1763, French revenues at 321 million
livres tournois
were well ahead of Britain's on 224, with the Netherlands in third place on 120, and Austria fourth on 92. See Bonney, ‘The Struggle for Great Power Status', p. 336.

9
. W. Goetzmann,
NewLands, NewMen: America and the Second Great Age of Discovery
(New York, 1986), pp. 69–73.

10
. For the power of the assemblies, B. Bailyn,
The Origins of American Politics
(pbk edn, New York, 1968).

11
. T. Schieder,
Frederick the Great
(1983; Eng. trans. London, 2000), pp. 116–17.

12
. For Frederick's fears of Russian expansion, ibid., pp. 151–8.

13
. Mainly to recover Silesia, lost to Prussia in 1740.

14
. See S. Sebag-Montefiore,
Potemkin
(London, 2000); N. K. Gvosdev,
Imperial Policies and Perspectives towards Georgia, 1760–1819
(London, 2000), ch. 4.

15
. P. Mackesy,
The War for America
(London, 1964) remains the standard account.

16
. G. Nobles,
American Frontiers: Cultural Encounters and Continental Conquest
(London, 1997), chs.2,3, for a recent overview.

17
. Cook's instructions, quoted in J. C. Beaglehole (ed.),
The Journals of Captain James Cook. The Voyage of the Endeavour, 1768–1771
(Cambridge, 1957), p. cclxxxii.

18
. A. Wink,
Land and Sovereignty in India: Agrarian Society and Politics under the Eighteenth-Century Maratha Svarajya
(Cambridge, 1986).

19
. This description was in a letter published in the
London Chronicle
in July 1757. S. C. Hill (ed.),
Indian Records Series: Bengal in 1756–1757
(3 vols., London, 1905), vol. 3, p. 85.

20
. Vivid contemporary accounts of the crisis can be followed in ibid., appx 2 and 3.

21
. Clive to his father, 19 Aug. 1757, in ibid., p. 360.

22
. Clive to William Pitt, 7 Jan. 1759, in W. K. Firminger (ed.),
Fifth Report… on the Affairs of the East India Company 1812
(1917; repr. New York, 1969), p. clvi.

23
. Clive to the East India Company, 16 Jan. 1767, in ibid., p. clix.

24
. See B. Stein, ‘State Formation and Economy Reconsidered',
Modern Asian Studies
19, 3 (1985), pp. 387–413; K. Brittlebank, ‘Assertion', in P. Marshall (ed.),
The Eighteenth Century in Indian History: Evolution or Revolution
(New Delhi, 2003), pp. 269–92.

25
. R. Callahan,
The East India Company and Army Reform
(Cambridge, Mass., 1972), p. 6.

26
. For an account of this trade, E. H. Pritchard,
The Crucial Years of Anglo-Chinese Relations 1750–1800
(Pullman, Wash., 1936); Holden Furber,
Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient 1600–1800
(Minneapolis, 1976; repr. New Delhi, 2004).

27
. A. Sorel,
Europe and the French Revolution: The Political Traditions of the Old Regime
(1885; Eng. trans. London, 1969), p. 119.

28
. R. J. Bonney, ‘France 1494–1815', in R. J. Bonney (ed.),
The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe c.1200–1815
(Oxford, 1999), pp. 148–50.

29
. For a recent account, M. Price,
The Fall of the French Monarchy
(London, 2002).

30
. A Sorel,
L'Europe et la Révolution française: La chute de la royauté
(10th edn, Paris, 1906), p. 458.

31
. Bonney, ‘The Struggle for Great Power Status', p. 360.

32
. F. de Bourrienne,
Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte
(1836; Eng. trans. ed. E. Sanderson, London, n.d.), p. 68.

33
. F. Charles-Roux,
Bonaparte: Governor of Egypt
(1936; Eng. trans. London, 1937), p. 2.

34
. See J. B. Kelly,
Britain and the Persian Gulf 1795–1880
(Oxford, 1968), ch. 2.

35
. Bourrienne,
Bonaparte
, p. 328.

36
. The best account of the settlement is now P. W. Schroeder,
The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848
(Oxford, 1994), ch. 12. See also E. V. Gulick,
Europe's Classical Balance of Power
(London, 1955), pt 2–a brilliant study.

37
. See Kenneth Pomeranz,
The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy
(Princeton, 2000).

38
. P. Bairoch,
Victoires et déboires: Histoire économique et sociale du monde du xvi siècle á nos jours
(3 vols., Paris, 1997), vol. 2, p. 852. For the dramatic falls in the price of cotton yarn and cloth in Britain, C. Knick Harley, ‘Cotton Textile Prices and the Industrial Revolution',
Economic History Review
, New Series,51, 1 (1998), pp. 49–83.