After Tamerlane (76 page)

8
. For an excellent survey of ‘subaltern' history, V. Chaturvedi (ed.),
Mapping Subaltern Studies and the Postcolonial
(London, 2000), ‘Introduction'.

9
. J. C. van Leur,
Indonesian Trade and Society: Essays in Asian Social and Economic History
(The Hague, 1955), p. 261.

10
. For an account of van Leur, J. Vogel, ‘A Short Life in History', in L. Blussé and F. Gaastra (eds.),
The Eighteenth Century as a Category in Asian History: Van Leur in Retrospect
(Aldershot, 1998).

11
. S. Subrahmanyam, ‘Connected Histories: Notes towards a Reconfiguration of Early Modern Eurasia',
Modern Asian Studies
31, 3 (1997), pp. 734–62.

12
. See the discussion of ‘Monsoon' and ‘Arid' Asia in J. Gommans, ‘Burma at the Frontier of South, East and Southeast Asia: A Geographic Perspective', in J. Gommans and J. Leider (eds.),
The Maritime Frontier of Burma: Exploring Political, Cultural and Commercial Interaction in the Indian Ocean World
(Leiden, 2002), pp. 1–7.

13
. A powerful statement of this view can be found in Kenneth Pomeranz,
The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy
(Princeton, 2000), from where the phrase ‘surprising resemblances' comes (p. 29).

14
. E. Said,
Orientalism
(London, 1978).

15
. S. L. Eisenstadt, ‘Multiple Modernities',
Daedalus
129, 1 (2000), pp. 1–29.

16
. Some writers claim that caste was all but imposed by the British; a more balanced view ascribes a major role to Indian informants. For the extreme position, N. Dirks,
Castes of Mind
(Princeton, 2001).

17
. T. Spear, ‘Neo-Traditionalism and the Limits of Invention in British Colonial Africa',
Journal of African History
44 (2003), pp. 2–27.

18
. See below, ch. 5; also J. Belich,
The NewZealand Wars
(Auckland, 1986).

19
. Originally in his paper for the Royal Geographical Society entitled ‘The Geographical Pivot of History',
Geographical Journal
23, 4 (1904), pp. 421–37.

20
. The best discussion remains D. Hay,
Europe: The Emergence of an Idea
(Edinburgh, 1957).

21
. For Russia's place in a European ‘cultural gradient', see Catherine Evtuhov and S. Kotkin (eds.),
The Cultural Gradient: The Transmission of Ideas in Europe 1788–1991
(Oxford, 2003).

22
. For a recent review of the debate, P. K. O'Brien, ‘Metanarratives in Global Histories of Material Progress',
International History Review
22, 2 (2001), pp. 345–67.

23
. See Book 1, Chapter 2.

24
. A. de Tocqueville,
Democracy in America
(1835; Everyman edn, London, 1994), vol. 1, p. 332.

25
. See Eisenstadt, ‘Multiple Modernities'.

26
. D. Obolensky,
The Byzantine Commonwealth
(London, 1971) and M.
Whittow,
The Making of Orthodox Byzantium 600–1025
(London, 1996) offer the best general accounts.

27
. The classic account is G. Duby,
The Early Growth of the European Economy
(1973; Eng. trans. Ithaca, NY, 1974). It should now be compared with C. Wickham,
Framing the Early Middle Ages
(Oxford, 2005).

28
. See M. Lombard, ‘La Chasse et les produits de chasse dans le monde musulman VIIIe–XIe siècles', in M. Lombard,
Espaces et réseaux du Haut Moyen Age
(Paris, 1972), pp. 176–204. When that demand was reduced by disruption in the Near East, the effects were felt severely. See R. Hodges and D. Whitehouse,
Mahomet, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe
(London, 1983).

29
. See A. Lewis,
The Sea and Mediaeval Civilisation
(London, 1978), ch. 14; K. Leyser, ‘Theophanus divina gratia imperatrix Augusta', in his
Communications and Power in Medieval Europe: The Carolingian and Ottoman Centuries
, ed. Timothy Reuter (London, 1994).

30
. For the Christian conversion of Vladimir of Kiev in the 980s, S. Franklin and J. Shepard,
The Emergence of Rus 750–1200
(London, 1996), ch. 4.

31
. For a brilliant discussion, R. Bartlett,
The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonisation and Cultural Change950–1350
(London, 1993).

32
. See R. Fletcher,
The Conversion of Europe
(London, 1997); E. Christiansen,
The Northern Crusades
(London, 1980).

33
. Duby,
Early Growth
, pp. 257–62.

34
. See E. Ashtor,
Levant Trade in the Later Middle Ages
(Princeton, 1983), pp. 462,469,512.

35
. R. Fletcher,
Moorish Spain
(London, 1992), ch. 7.

36
. A. Wink,
Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World
, vol. 1:
Early Mediaeval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7 th–11th Centuries
(Leiden, 1996), p. 23.

37
. See A. M. Watson,
Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques 700–1100
(Cambridge, 1975).

38
. See P. Ratchnevsky,
Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy
(1983; Eng. trans. Oxford, 1991).

39
. Ibn Khaldun,
The Muqadimmah: An Introduction to History
, trans. F. Rosenthal (London, 1967). The
Muqadimmah
was translated into French in the 1860s. The first full version in English, of which this volume is an abridgement, appeared in 1958.

40
. The classic analysis is P. Crone,
Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity
(Cambridge, 1980).

41
. See D. Pipes,
Slave Soldiers and Islam
(New Haven and London, 1981).

42
. M. G. S. Hodgson,
The Venture of Islam
(3 vols., Chicago, 1974) is a brilliant analytical survey.

43
. R.R. Di Miglio, ‘Egypt and China: Trade and Imitation', in D. S. Richards (ed.),
Islam and the Trade of Asia
(Oxford, 1970), pp. 106–22.

44
. I.M. Lapidus,
Muslim Cities in the Later Middle Ages
(Cambridge, 1967), p. 9.

45
. See J. Abu-Lughod,
Before European Hegemony: The World System 1250–1350
(New York, 1989), pp. 23 ff.; C. Cahen, ‘Quelques mots sur le déclin commercial du monde musulman aà la fin du moyen aâge', in C. Cahen,
Les Peuples musulmans dans l'histoire medievale
(Damascus, 1977), pp. 361–5.

46
. M. Elvin,
The Pattern of the Chinese Past
(London, 1973), p. 205. The quotation is from a thirteenth-century writer.

47
. C. P. Fitzgerald,
The Southern Expansion of the Chinese People
(London, 1972), ch. 7.

48
. For this suggestive view, see A. Waldron,
The Great Wall: From History to Myth
(Cambridge, 1990), pp. 190–92.

49
. For a recent authoritative assessment of Elvin's thesis, R. von Glahn, ‘Imagining Pre-Modern China', in P. J. Smith and R. von Glahn (eds.),
The Song–Yuan–Ming Transition in Chinese History
(Cambridge, Mass., 2003), pp. 35–70.

50
. Elvin's key ideas can be followed in his
The Pattern of the Chinese Past
(London, 1973), chs. 14,17, and in ‘The High Level Equilibrium Trap', in
Another History: Essays on China from a European Perspective
(Sydney, 1996), ch. 2.

1
. See F. Fernandez-Armesto,
Before Columbus
(London, 1987), pp. 216–20.

2
. See P. Chaunu,
European Expansion in the Later Middle Ages
(1969; Eng. trans. London, 1979), pp. 95–7.

3
. See A. Hamdani, ‘An Islamic Background to the Voyages of Discovery', in S. K. Jayyusi (ed.),
The Legacy of Muslim Spain
(Leiden, 1994), pp. 286–7.

4
. J. Phillips,
The Mediaeval Expansion of Europe
(Oxford, 1988), pp. 251 ff.

5
. For a recent study, S. Subrahmanyam,
Vasco da Gama
(Cambridge, 1997).

6
. J. Vogt,
Portuguese Rule on the Gold Coast 1469–1682
(Athens, Ga., 1979), p. 89.

7
. M. N. Pearson,
The Portuguese in India
(Cambridge, 1987), p. 43.

8
. A. Das Gupta, ‘The Maritime Merchant of Medieval India', in
Merchants of Maritime India
(Aldershot, 1994), p. 8; Pearson,
Portuguese in India
, p. 56.

9
. S. Subrahmanyam and L. F. F. R. Thomaz, ‘Evolution of Empire: The
Portuguese in the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth Century', in J. D. Tracy (ed.),
The Political Economy of Merchant Empires: State Power and World Trade
1350–1750
(Cambridge, 1991), p. 318.

10
. For the significance of Brazilian trade, J. C. Boyajian,
Portuguese Trade in Asia under the Habsburgs
(Baltimore and London, 1993).

11
. G. B. Souza,
The Survival of Empire: Portuguese Trade and Society in China and the South China Sea, 1630–1754
(Cambridge, 1986), p. 229.

12
. Hamdani, ‘Islamic Background'.

13
. Chaunu,
European Expansion
, p. 170.

14
. R. Hassig,
Mexico and the Spanish Conquest
(London, 1994), p. 146.

15
. See T. Todorov,
La Conquîte de l'Amérique
(Paris, 1982).

16
. These figures have been debated by historians for decades. For a recent survey, Linda A. Newson, ‘The Demographic Collapse of Native Peoples in the Americas, 1491–1650', in W. Bray (ed.),
The Meeting of Two Worlds: Europe and the Americas, 1492–1650
, published in
Proceedings of the British Academy
81 (1993), pp. 249–77. For the estimate of a 90 per cent die-off in Peru, D. N. Cook,
Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru 1520–1620
(Cambridge, 1981), p. 116.

17
. P. Calvasco, ‘The Political Economy of the Aztec and Inca States', in G. Collier, R. Rosaldo and J. D. Wirth (eds.),
The Inca and Aztec States, 1400–1800: Anthropology and History
(New York, 1982).

18
. B. A. Tenenbaum (ed.),
Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture
(New York, 1996), vol. 4, p. 435.

19
. See G. L. Villena,
Les Espinosa
(Paris, 1968) for Gaspar Espinosa, the Panama-based merchant.

20
. See G. W. Conrad and A. A. Demarest,
Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism
(Cambridge, 1984).

21
. This is the theme of S. Gruzinski,
The Conquest of Mexico
(1988; Eng. trans. London, 1993).

22
. H. S. Klein and J. J. TePaske, ‘The Seventeenth-Century Crisis in New Spain: Myth or Reality?',
Past and Present
91 (1981), pp. 116–35.

23
. J.I. Israel,
Race and Class in Colonial Mexico 1610–1670
(Oxford, 1975), p. 8.

24
. Gruzinski,
Conquest
, p. 152.

25
. F.F. Berdan, ‘Trauma and Transition in Sixteenth-Century Central Mexico', in Bray (ed.),
The Meeting of Two Worlds
, p. 187.

26
. See A. Hennessy, ‘The Nature of the Conquest and the Conquistadors', in Bray (ed.),
The Meeting of Two Worlds
, p. 23.

27
. Gruzinski,
Conquest
, pp. 176–87.

28
. Berdan, ‘Trauma and Transition', p. 190.

29
. J. Lockhart,
Spanish Peru 1532–60: A Colonial Society
(Madison, 1968).

30
. Hennessy, ‘Nature of the Conquest', p. 19.

31
. Ortega y Gasset, quoted in R. H. Billington,
The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretive History of Russian Culture
(pbk edn, New York, 1970), p. 71.

32
. H. Birnbaum, ‘The Balkan Slavic Component of Medieval Russian Culture', in H. Birnbaum and M. S. Flier (eds.),
Medieval Russian Culture
(London, 1984), pp. 3–30.

33
. R.O. Crummey,
The Formation of Muscovy 1301–1617
(London, 1987), pp. 36,41.

34
. Ibid., pp. 36 ff.

35
. See W. H. Parker,
An Historical Geography of Russia
(London, 1968) for Moscow's position.

36
. See N. Davies,
God's Playground: A History of Poland
, vol. 1:
The Origins to 1795
(Oxford, 1981), pp. 148–52, for the Polish Renaissance.

37
. D. Obolensky, ‘Russia's Byzantine Heritage', in his
Byzantium and the Slavs: Collected Studies
(London, 1971), p. 99; N. Andreyev,
Studies in Muscovy: Western Influence and Byzantine Inheritance
(London, 1970), pp. 14,21; R. Wortman,
Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy
, vol. 1:
From Peter the Great to the Death of Nicholas I
(Princeton, 1995), p. 24.

38
. Billington,
Icon
, p. 64.

39
. Ibid., p. 90.

40
. G.V. Lantzeff and R. A. Pierce,
Eastward to Empire
(Montreal and London, 1973), pp. 72,107,109.

41
. J.L. Wieczynski,
The Russian Frontier: The Impact of Borderlands upon the Course of Early Russian History
(Charlottesville, Va., 1976), p. 77.

42
. See the lyrical description of the steppe in Nikolai Gogol's story, ‘Taras Bulba' (1835), in N. Gogol,
Village Evenings near Dikanka
and
Mirgorod
(Eng. trans. Oxford, 1994), p. 257.