The Transformation of the World (221 page)

  92
. Torp,
Herausforderung
, pp. 34–36.

  93
. Peter H. Lindert and Jeffrey G.Williamson, “Does Globalization Make the World More Unequal?” in: Bordo et al.,
Globalization
, pp. 227–71, at 233.

  94
. See the exemplary case studies in Topik et al.,
From Silver to Cocaine
.

  95
. Akinobu Kuroda, “The Collapse of the Chinese Imperial Monetary System,” in: Sugihara,
Japan
, pp. 103–26, esp. 106–13.

  96
. See the meticulous analysis in Otto,
Entstehung eines nationalen Geldes
.

  97
. Toniolo,
Economic History
, p. 59.

  98
. Irigoin,
Gresham on Horseback
.

  99
. See Flandreau
Monetary Unions
.

100
. See the research conclusions in Flynn and Giráldez,
Cycles of Silver
.

101
. Roy,
India in the World Economy
, p. 127.

102
. Lin Man-houng,
China Upside Down
, p. 114. For a more nuanced analysis than can be attempted here, see Hamashita,
China, East Asia and the Global Economy
, pp. 39–56. A classic on the origins of the Opium War is Chang Hsin-pao,
Commissioner Lin
; and a recent exhaustive treatment of opium in modern world history is Derks,
Opium Problem
.

103
. Rothermund,
Economic History of India
, pp. 43f.

104
. P. R. Gregory,
Before Command
, p. 67.

105
. Eichengreen,
Globalizing Capital
, pp. 24–29; there is also a good account in Frieden,
Global Capitalism
, pp. 6f., 14–21, 48f.

106
. Eichengreen,
Globalizing Capital
, p. 29.

107
. Cecco,
Money and Empire
, p. 59; R. Miller,
Britain and Latin America
, pp. 168, 174f. (doubts about the stabilizing influence from abroad in the Chilean case); Richard Salvucci, “Export-Led Industrialization,” in: Bulmer-Thomas et al.,
Cambridge Economic History of Latin America
, vol. 2, pp. 249–92, at 256–60.

108
. See the discriminating analysis in Gallarotti,
Anatomy
, pp. 207–17.

109
. On the gold supply as an independent variable, see Eichengreen and McLean,
Supply of Gold
, esp. p. 288, which shows that output was to only a limited extent triggered by demand.

110
. Here I am following Frieden,
Global Capitalism
, p. 121.

111
. There is a somewhat incoherent introduction to the subject in Allen,
Global Financial System
, pp. 8–9, 12.

112
. Neal,
Financial Capitalism
, p. 229. For reasons of space, this brief chapter cannot even attempt to sketch the global development of financial institutions. While there is no comprehensive history of banking or stock exchanges, the history of insurance is now superbly covered in Borscheid and Haueter,
World Insurance
.

113
. Kenwood and Loughed,
Growth
, p. 6.

114
. See the data for 1825–1995 in Maurice Obstfeld and Alan M. Taylor, “Globalization and Capital Markets,” in Bordo et al.,
Globalization
, pp. 121–83, at 141f. (Tab. 3.2).

115
. See Kynaston,
City
; Michie,
London Stock Exchange
, ch. 3; idem,
Global Securities Market
, chs. 4 & 5.

116
. See Cassis,
Capitals of Capital
.

117
. Girault,
Diplomatie européenne
, p. 39.

118
. Peter H. Lindert and Peter J. Morton, “How Sovereign Debt Has Worked,” in: Sachs,
Developing Country Debt
, pp. 225–35, at 230.

119
. Excellent on this is Suzuki,
Japanese Government Loan Issues
, which also has a good account of the London capital market (pp. 23ff.). See also Tamaki,
Japanese Banking
, pp. 87ff.

120
. Kuran,
Islam and Mammon
, pp. 13f.

121
. I. Stone,
Global Export
, pp. 381, 409 (rounded up or down).

122
. Schularick,
Finanzielle Globalisierung
, p. 44 (Tab. 1.10, rounded up or down).

123
. G. Austin and Sugihara,
Local Suppliers of Credit
, pp. 5, 13.

124
. See
chapter 9
, above.

125
. Kindleberger,
Financial History
, p. 222.

126
. Topik,
When Mexico Had the Blues
.

127
. Blake,
Disraeli
, pp. 581–87.

128
. R. Owen,
Middle East
, p. 127, Tab. 19.

129
. On Ismail's costly embellishment of Cairo, see
chapter 6
, above.

130
. R. Owen,
Middle East
, pp. 130–35.

131
. On the problem of state bankruptcy before 1914, see Petersson,
Anarchie
, ch. 2.

132
. See Marichal,
Debt Crises
, on Latin America; similar overviews are still lacking for Asia.

CHAPTER XV: Hierarchies

    1
. I use this term, which sociological theory considers imprecise, as a rough synonym for the somewhat narrower and technical-sounding “stratification.” What interests me here are only certain positions (especially “above,” “in the middle,” and “outside”) in social structures that participants perceive or “imagine” to be unequal. To speak in general of “hierarchy” in the nineteenth century is not to take “stratificatory differentiation” as typical of the epoch worldwide or to deny that processes of transition to “functional differentiation” (Niklas Luhmann) may be empirically observable.

    2
. Cannadine,
Rise and Fall
, pp. 88f., 91, 99.

    3
. Tocqueville,
Democracy
, p. 60 (pt. 1, ch. 3).

    4
. Kocka,
19. Jahrhundert
, p. 100.

    5
. Naquin and Rawski,
Chinese Society
, pp. 138ff.

    6
. Toledano,
State and Society
, pp. 157f.

    7
. Stinchcombe,
Economic Sociology
, p. 245—an unusually stimulating book for social history. There are fine examples relating to France in G. Robb,
Discovery of France
.

    8
. This is the theme of Goody,
Theft of History
.

    9
. See the overview in Burrow,
Crisis of Reason
, ch. 2.

  10
. See Gall,
Bürgertum
, pp. 81f. A precise discussion of the concepts may be found in Kocka,
Weder Stand noch Klasse
, pp. 33–35.

  11
. Devine,
Scottish Nation
, pp. 172–83.

  12
. Wirtschafter,
Structures of Society
, p. 148; Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, “The Groups Between:
Raznochintsy
, Intelligentsia, Professionals,” in: D. Lieven,
Cambridge History of Russia
, pp. 245–63, at 245.

  13
. Hartley,
Social History
, p. 51.

  14
. On West European society in the late eighteenth century, see Christof Dipper, “Orders and Classes. Eighteenth-Century Society under Pressure,” in Blanning,
Eighteenth Century
, pp. 52–90.

  15
. See the chapter “Status Groups,” in M. B. Jansen,
Modern Japan
, pp. 96–126.

  16
. This is an extreme simplification. For an example of the extraordinary complexity of social hierarchies in early nineteenth century Asia and of the terminology used to describe them, see Rabibhadana,
Thai Society
, pp. 97–170.

  17
. V. Das, “Caste,” in Smelser and Baltes,
International Encyclopedia
, vol. 3, pp. 1529–32; Peebles,
Sri Lanka
, p. 48.

  18
. A. von Humboldt,
Studienausgabe
, vol. 4, pp. 162ff.

  19
. Wasserman,
Everyday Life
, p. 12.

  20
. See
chapters 4
and
    7
, above.

  21
. See
chapter 4
, above.

  22
. Rickard,
Australia
, p. 37.

  23
. Korea war the only society to have slavery in modern East Asia, with remnants lasting into the nineteenth century. See Palais,
Korean Uniqueness
, p. 415.

  24
. On workers and farmers, see
chapter 13
, above.

  25
. Walter Demel, “Der europäische Adel vor der Revolution: Sieben Thesen,” in: Asch,
Adel
, pp. 409–33, at 409. See also Lukowski,
European Nobility
.

  26
. D. Lieven,
Aristocracy
, p. 1. But for the roots of the slow decline of the nobility, see Demel,
Der europäische Adel
, pp. 87–90.

  27
. Maria Todorova, “The Ottoman Legacy in the Balkans,” in: L. C. Brown,
Imperial Legacy
, pp. 46–77, at 60.

  28
. Beckett,
Aristocracy
, p. 40.

  29
. Demel,
Der europäische Adel
, p. 17.

  30
. Woloch,
Napoleon and His Collaborators
, pp. 169–73.

  31
. This term is also used in the history of the Near and Middle East, though with stronger reference to a political role of mediation between ruler and people (somewhat similar to that of the
gentry
or the
shenshi
in China). See Albert Hourani, “Ottoman Reform and the Politics of Notables,” in: Hourani et al.,
Modern Middle East
, pp. 83–109.

  32
. Charle,
Histoire sociale de la France
, pp. 229ff.

  33
. There is a good characterization in D. Lieven,
Empire
, pp. 241–44.

  34
. Beckett,
Aristocracy
, p. 31.

  35
. Two chief adversaries in the debate have been F.M.L. Thompson and W. D. Rubinstein.

  36
. Asch,
Europäischer Adel
, p. 298.

  37
. Searle,
A New England
, pp. 37f.

  38
. See the overview in Beckett,
Aristocracy
, pp. 16–42.

  39
. Maria Malatesta, “The Landed Aristocracy during the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries,” in: Kaelble,
European Way
, pp. 44–67.

  40
. Cannadine,
Ornamentalism
, pp. 85ff.

  41
. Liebersohn,
Aristocratic Encounters
develops this theme with reference to North America and remarks by European aristocratic travellers on elements of nobility among the Indian population.

  42
. Fox-Genovese and Genovese,
Mind of the Master Class
, pp. 304–82.

  43
. This is the dramatic, but not altogether inappropriate, term used in Wasson,
Aristocracy
, p. 156.

  44
. Nutini,
Wages of Conquest
, p. 322 argues that in Mexico an aristocracy going back to early colonial times and ultimately resting on hacienda ownership was able to maintain itself unchallenged.

  45
. The classical analysis is Cohn,
Anthropologist
, pp. 632–82.

  46
. Panda,
Bengal Zamindars
, p. 2.

  47
. This section follows Schwentker,
Samurai
, pp. 95–116. Another very interesting account (essentially of the Tokugawa period), by a sociologist working in the field of history, is Ikegami,
Taming of the Samurai
. For a vivid evocation of the life of a low-ranking samurai, see Katsu Kokichi,
Musui's Story
.

  48
. Demel,
Der europäische Adel
, p. 88.

  49
. Ravina,
Last Samurai
, pp. 191ff. The leader of the revolt was not a direct victim of the Meiji Restoration but one of its main protagonists.

  50
. Elman,
Civil Examinations
; and a classic of social history, Chang Chung-li,
Chinese Gentry
. See also R. J. Smith,
China's Cultural Heritage
, pp. 55–64, 71–75; and Joseph W. Esherick and Mary Backus Rankin, “Introduction,” in idem,
Chinese Local Elites
, pp. 1–24.

  51
. Reynolds,
China,
offers an overview.

  52
. Crossley,
Orphan Warriors
.

  53
. For Germany (with a few doubts), see Kocka,
19. Jahrhundert
, pp. 98–137. Bank and Buuren,
1900,
offers a comprehensive snapshot of a prototypical bourgeois society in Europe; Tanner,
Arbeitsame Patrioten,
is an empirically dense portrait of the most “bourgeois” country in the world.

  54
. Europe-wide studies of the middle classes kept many German historians busy in the 1980s and 1990s. Summaries of their work are Lundgreen,
Sozial-und Kulturgeschichte
; Kocka and Frevert,
Bürgertum
; Gall,
Stadt und Bürgertum
; a critical comparison of the various schools is Sperber,
Bürger
.

  55
. The Bassermann family serves as the example in Gall,
Bürgertum in Deutschland
.

  56
. Maza,
Myth of the French Bourgeoisie
.

  57
. See the overview in Pilbeam,
Middle Classes
, pp. 74–106.

  58
. Goblot,
Barrière et niveau
, p. 7—one of the most intellectually stimulating books ever written about the bourgeoisie.