The Transformation of the World (205 page)

178
. Tracy Dennison and James Simpson, “Agriculture,” in: Broadberry and O'Rourke,
Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe
, vol. 1, pp. 148–63, at 162.

179
. Overton,
Agricultural Revolution
, pp. 8, 206; see the broad panorama in Grigg,
Transformation
.

180
. There is still something to be said for the older thesis that the greatest productivity increases in English agriculture occurred only after 1800. This would mean that the “agricultural revolution” was not a in a neat way preliminary to the Industrial Revolution but a synchronic part of a comprehensive process of transformation. See M. E. Turner et al.,
Farm Production
. A new general discussion is Mokyr,
Enlightened Economy
, pp. 170–84.

181
. Bairoch,
Victoires
, vol. 1, pp. 273f.; Daunton,
Progress
, p. 44; Robert C. Allen, “Agriculture during the Industrial Revolution,” in: Floud and Johnson,
Cambridge Economic History of Britain
, vol. 1, pp. 96–116, at 96.

182
. Overton,
Agricultural Revolution
, pp. 121f., 124.

183
. Grigg,
Transformation
, pp. 48–50.

184
. There is a good survey of eighteenth-century European agriculture in: Cameron,
Economic History
, pp. 109–14.

185
. Braudel,
Civilization and Capitalism
, vol. 1, p. 155; see the brief account in Chaudhuri,
Asia
, pp. 233–38.

186
. Huang,
Peasant Family
, pp. 77ff.; Pomeranz,
Great Divergence
, pp. 215f.

187
. Bray,
Rice Economies
, pp. 55, 205.

188
. Achilles,
Deutsche Agrargeschichte
, p. 206.

189
. Wolfram Fischer, “Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Europas 1850–1914,” in: Fischer,
Handbuch
, vol. 5, pp. 1–207, at 140 (tab. 38).

190
. Overton,
Agricultural Revolution
, p. 131.

191
. For 1700–1850: Robert C. Allen, “Agriculture during the Industrial Revolution,” in: Floud and Johnson,
Cambridge Economic History of Britain
, vol. 1, pp. 103f.

192
. See the broad panorama, mainly focused on environmental history, in Dunlap,
Nature
; for India, Markovits,
Modern India
, pp. 306–8.

193
. Offer,
First World War
, pp. 404 and passim.

194
. This, slightly modified, is the interpretation in Koning,
Failure
, esp. pp. 71 ff.

195
. See Stedman Jones,
End to Poverty
.

196
. See the resumé in Kaelble,
Industrialisierung
, p. 55; Colin Heywood, “Society,” in: Blanning,
Nineteenth Century
, pp. 47–77, at 57f.; and the quantitative case put forward in Hoffman et al.,
Real Inequality
, pp. 348, 351.

197
. D. Lieven,
The Aristocracy
, ch. 2.

198
. A splendid description of this world may be found in the social and architectural study: J. M. Crook,
Rise of the Nouveaux Riches
, esp. pp. 37ff.; cf. Mandler,
Fall and Rise
.

199
. See the studies of Britain, France, Italy, and the United States in: Rubinstein,
Wealth
; and, for the United States, the overviews in Lee Soltow, “Wealth and Income Distribution,” in: Cayton,
Encyclopedia
, vol. 2, pp. 1517–31, and Ronald Story, “The Aristocracy of Inherited Wealth,” in: ibid., pp. 1533–39 (percentage on p. 1536).

200
. Williamson and Lindert,
American Inequality
, pp. 75–77; Huston,
Securing the Fruits
, pp. 339 f.

201
. Homberger,
Mrs. Astor's New York
, pp. 1ff. and passim; Bushman,
Refinement
, p. 413; Sarasin,
Stadt der Bürger
, ch. 4.

202
. G. Clark,
Farewell to Alms
, pp. 236, 298f.

203
. Carosso,
The Morgans
, p. 644. In today's values that would have been equivalent $800 million.

204
. W. D. Rubinstein, “Introduction,” to idem,
Wealth
, pp. 9–45, at 18–21; Cannadine,
Decline and Fall
, pp. 90f.; and Beckert,
Monied Metropolis
, p. 28.

205
. Naquin,
Peking
, pp. 392–94 (sketch of such an estate: p. 393).

206
. Abeyasekere,
Jakarta
, p. 62.

207
. There is a fine description of the mood among the samurai in McClain,
Japan
, pp. 120–24.

208
. Ravina,
Land and Lordship,
pp. 68f.

209
. A conceptually clear analysis of
waqfs
, especially in the eighteenth century, is Leeuwen,
Waqfs
; see esp. the overview of their integrative functions on p. 207.

210
. Iliffe,
African Poor
, pp. 14, 29, 114, 124, 143, 148, 164ff. and passim.

211
. D. Lieven,
Aristocracy
, p. 39; Freyre,
Mansions
, p. 22; Abeyasekere,
Jakarta
, p. 37.

212
. Iliffe,
African Poor
, pp. 65–81. On the structural conditions of the nomadic way of life, see Khazanov,
Nomads
.

213
. George R. Boyer, “Living Standards, 1860–1939,” in: Floud and Johnson,
Cambridge Economic History
, vol. 2, pp. 280–313, at 298f.

214
. Özmucur and Pamuk,
Real Wages
, pp. 316f.; G. Clark,
Farewell to Alms
, p. 49 (tab. 3.5); see also Şevket Pamuk and Jan-Luiten van Zanden, “Standards of Living,” in: Broadberry and O'Rourke,
Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe
, vol. 1, pp. 217–34; Malanima,
Pre-Modern European Economy
, p. 271.

215
. Bishnupriya Gupta and Debin Ma, “Europe in an Asian Mirror: The Great Divergence,” in: Broadberry and O'Rourke,
Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe
, vol. 1, pp. 263–85, at 273.

216
. See Lindenmeyer,
Poverty
, pp. 142–44. A survey of poor relief in “Northern Europe,” including France, Germany, and Russia, may be found in Grell et al.,
Health Care
.

217
. Ener,
Managing Egypt's Poor
, pp. 19–23.

218
. Braudel,
Civilization and Capitalism
, vol. 1, pp. 187ff.

219
. See the overview in Wendt,
Kolonialismus
, pp. 83–85, 184–90, 372f.; and the product by product account in Kiple,
Movable Feast
.

220
. E. N. Anderson,
Food of China
, pp. 97f.

221
. Yves Péhaut, “The Invasion of Foreign Foods,” in: Flandrin and Montanari,
Food
, pp. 457–70, at 457–61.

222
. Peter W. Williams, “Foodways,” in: Cayton,
Encyclopedia
, vol. 2., pp. 1331–44, at 1337.

223
. G. G. Hamilton,
Commerce
, pp. 76f.; Dikötter,
Exotic Commodities
, pp. 222–24, 228f., 231.

224
. J.A.G. Roberts,
China to Chinatown
, chs. 6–7. Cf. Goody,
Food
, pp. 161–71.

225
. Walvin,
Fruits of Empire
, p. 168–73.

226
. Ibid., p. 30.

227
. Pohl,
Aufbruch
, p. 111.

228
. Mintz,
Sweetness
, pp. 78, 114–20, 133f., 148f., 180f., Mintz considers this to have been specific to Britain.

229
. Galloway,
Sugar Cane Industry
, p. 239.

230
. Vigier,
Paris
, p. 316.

231
. D. J. Oddy, “Food, Drink and Nutrition,” in: Thomson,
Cambridge Social History of Britain
, vol. 2, pp. 251–78, at 270f.

232
. Hanley,
Everyday Things
, p. 162.

233
. Mokyr,
Lever of Riches
, p. 141.

234
. Pohl,
Aufbruch
, pp. 106f.

235
. Rock,
Argentina
, pp. 171f.

236
. Cronon,
Nature's Metropolis
, pp. 207–12, 225–47. On the comparative strength of the American meat culture, see Horowitz et al.,
Meat
.

237
. Peter W. Williams, “Foodways,” in: Cayton,
Encyclopedia
, vol. 2, p. 1336; and D. J. Oddy, “Food, Drink and Nutrition,” in: Thomson,
Cambridge Social History of Britain
, vol. 2, pp. 274f.

238
. Ellerbrock,
Geschichte der deutschen Nahrungs-und Genußmittelindustrie
, p. 235.

239
. Pounds,
Hearth and Home
, pp. 394f..

240
. Benjamin,
Arcades Project
, e.g., pp. 40ff.; see also Crossick and Jaumain,
Cathedrals of Consumption
.

241
. Higonnet,
Paris
, pp. 194–200.

242
. R. Porter,
London
, p. 201.

243
. Burrows and Wallace,
Gotham
, pp. 667f.

244
. Bled,
Wien
, p. 216.

245
. Seidensticker,
Low City
, pp. 110–14.

246
. For the prosaic explanation: Jean-Robert Pitte, “The Rise of the Restaurant,” in: Flandrin and Montanari,
Food
, pp. 471–80; and for the complex perspective of cultural studies: Spang,
Restaurant
, p. 150 (quotation) and passim.

247
. Walton,
Fish and Chips
, pp. 5, 8, 25.

248
. Hanley,
Everyday Things
, p. 164; Nishiyama,
Edo Culture
, pp. 164–78.

249
. W. König,
Konsumgesellschaft
, p. 94.

250
. Tedlow
, New and Improved
, pp. 14f., on Coca Cola pp. 23–111 (Tab. 2-2, p. 29).

251
. W. König,
Konsumgesellschaft
, pp. 94f.

252
. McKendrick et al.,
Birth of a Consumer Society
; Brewer and Porter,
Consumption
.

253
. See the chapter “The Consuming City” in: Boyar and Fleet,
Ottoman Istanbul
, pp. 137–204.

254
. Brook,
Confusions of Pleasure
, pp. 190–237; on fashion: pp. 218ff.

255
. Hannes Siegrist, “Konsum, Kultur und Gesellschaft im modernen Europa,” in: Siegrist et al.,
Europäische Konsumgeschichte
, pp. 3–48, at pp. 18f.

256
. Freyre,
Mansions
, pp. 206ff. On the similar symbolism of the watch, see
chapter 2
, above.

257
. Bernand,
Buenos Aires
, pp. 187–89, 98.

258
. Cohn,
Colonialism
, p. 112 (also pp. 123f. on the later reorientalization of military uniforms in British India); Mukherjee,
Calcutta
, p. 90.

259
. Purdy,
Tyranny of Elegance
, pp. 215.19.

260
. Ross,
Clothing
, p. 87.

261
. C. J. Baker and Phongpaichit,
Thailand
, p. 100.

262
. Zachernuk,
Colonial Subjects
, p. 30.

263
. On the problem that the British and many Indians had with “nakedness” in India, see Cohn,
Colonialism
, pp. 129ff.

264
. A. J. Bauer,
Goods
, pp. 130, 138–64; Needell,
Tropical “belle époque,”
pp. 156ff. and passim. Needell speaks of “consumer fetishism” (p. 156). On Egypt, see the rather scanty collection of material in Luthi,
La vie quotidienne en Égypte
.

265
. Charlotte Jirousek, “The Transition to Mass Fashion Dress in the Later Ottoman Empire,” in: Quataert,
Consumption Studies
, pp. 201–41, at 208, 210, 223f., 229; on earlier Ottoman dressing habits see Boyar and Fleet,
Ottoman Istanbul
, pp. 175–82.

266
. Abu-Lughod,
Rabat
, p. 107.

267
. Seidensticker,
Low City
, pp. 97, 10; Hanley,
Everyday Things
, pp. 173–75, 196; above all Esenbel,
Anguish
, esp. pp. 157–65.

268
. On Lodz: Pietrow-Ennker,
Wirtschaftsbürger
, p. 200.

269
. Esenbel,
Anguish
, pp. 168f.

270
. Finnane,
Changing Clothes in China
, p. 77: the standard work on the subject.

271
. Nuckolls,
Durbar Incident
; Cohn,
Colonialism
, pp. 127–29.

272
. See the sparkling and entertaining account in: Dalrymple,
White Mughals
.

273
. J. G. Taylor,
Social World of Batavia
, pp. 112f.; Abeyasekere,
Jakarta
, p. 75.

274
. Papin,
Hanoi
, pp. 197, 200.

275
. G. Wright,
Politics of Design
, pp. 236–43.

276
. See Radkau,
Nervosität
, pp. 17–23.

277
. Klaus Tenfelde, “Klassenspezifische Konsummuster im Deutschen Kaiserreich,” in: Siegrist et al.,
Konsumgeschichte
, pp. 245–66, at 256–59.

278
. Montanari,
Hunger
, pp. 155ff., 189.

279
. A comprehensive, in part formal-mathematical, conceptualization of all possible aspects of the standard of living is: Dasgupta,
Inquiry
.

CHAPTER VI: Cities

    1
. The contextual opposition of city and country is therefore too narrow. In nineteenth-century Brazil, for example, the relevant contrast was between the city and the plantation: see Freyre,
Mansions
, p. 26 and passim.

    2
. See H. S. Jansen,
Wrestling with the Angel
.