The Transformation of the World (202 page)

  10
. Karpat,
Ottoman Population
1985, p. 117 (Tab. I.6). With Egypt, 40.5 million.

  11
. Maddison,
Chinese Economic Performance
, p. 47.

  12
. See, for example, Rudolf G. Wagner, “Taiping-Aufstand,” in: Staiger et al.,
China-Lexikon
, pp. 735–39, at 736.

  13
. Deng,
China's Political Economy
, p. 38,

  14
. Cf. J. Z. Lee and Wang,
One Quarter of Humanity
, pp. 14–23.

  15
. J. Z. Lee and Campbell,
Fate and Fortune
, p. 70.

  16
. Hanley and Yamamura,
Preindustrial Japan
, p. 320.

  17
. Totman,
History of Japan
, pp. 326f.

  18
. Wolfram Fischer, “Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Europas 1850–1914,” in: Fischer,
Handbuch
, vol. 5, pp. 1–207, at 14 (table 3).

  19
. For a survey of growth rates in Europe, see Tortella,
Modern Spain
, p. 33 (Tab. 2.2.).

  20
. Saunders,
Russia
, p. 270.

  21
. The basis for my data here is Maddison,
World Economy
, p. 241 (Tab. B-10).

  22
. Dupâquier,
Histoire de la population française
, p. 293.

  23
. On the current state of research, see Bardet and Dupâquier,
Histoire des populations de l'Europe
, pp. 287–325.

  24
. O'Gráda,
Ireland's Great Famine
, p. 16.

  25
. O'Rourke and Williamson,
Globalization
, pp. 150–52.

  26
. Figure from McPherson,
Battle Cry
, p. 854.

  27
. Ricklefs,
Modern Indonesia
, p. 142.

  28
. Figures from J. Levy,
War
, p. 90; Rasler and Thompson,
War
, p. 13 (Tab. 1.2).

  29
. Schroeder,
International System
, p. 11; secondary analysis of the data in Eckhardt,
Civilizations
.

  30
. Rallu,
Les populations océaniennes
, p. 6.

  31
. See Thornton,
American Indian Holocaust
, pp. 107–9; and the even bleaker estimates in Nugent,
Into the West
, p. 35.

  32
. For a good summary and discussion of the present state of knowledge, see Broome,
Aboriginal Victorians
, pp. 79–93.

  33
. R. V. Jackson,
Population History
, p. 5 (Tab. 1).

  34
. Many data, of highly varied quality, may be found in Ferro,
Livre noir
.

  35
. Etemad,
Possessing the World
, p. 70. Since Etemad includes the Spanish war of the 1920s in Morocco, the total figure for this period should probably be closer to 280,000. Etemad does not take Russian or Japanese expansion into account.

  36
. Ibid., pp. 93, 94 (Tab. 5.1).

  37
. Coquery-Vidrovitch,
Africa
, p. 10; Vanthemsche,
La Belgique et le Congo
, pp. 40–42.

  38
. Ruedy,
Modern Algeria
, p. 93.

  39
. S. Doyle,
Population Decline
, p. 438.

  40
. See the carefully considered account and evaluation in C. Marx,
Geschichte Afrikas
, pp. 143–47.

  41
. The following draws on Bähr,
Bevölkerungsgeographie
, pp. 219–29; Dyson,
Population and Development
.

  42
. Bähr,
Bevölkerungsgeographie
, p. 222.

  43
. H. S. Klein,
Population History
, pp. 77–79.

  44
. Bardet and Dupâquier,
Histoire des populations de l'Europe
, p. 149 (Tab. 9).

  45
. Livi-Bacci,
World Population
, p. 113.

  46
. See
chapter 7
, below.

  47
. Gelder,
Het Oost-Indisch avontuur
, pp. 14, 41, 64.

  48
. Liauzu,
Histoire des migrations
, pp. 66–73; Nicholas Canny, “In Search of a Better Home? European Overseas Migration, 1500–1800,” in idem,
Europeans
, pp. 263–83.

  49
. Canny,
Europeans
, p. 279.

  50
. For a survey, see the historical-sociological investigations in Ribeiro,
Americas
.

  51
. Robert W. Slenes, “Brazil,” in: Paquette and Smith,
Oxford Handbook of Slavery
, pp. 111–33, at 114f. A useful tabulation of the data is Stephen D. Behrendt, “The Transatlantic Slave Trade,” in ibid., pp. 251–74, at 263 (Tab. 11.1); detailed numbers for all destinations in Eltis and Richardson,
Atlas
, pp. 200–203.

  52
. Slenes, “Brazil,” pp. 119–21.

  53
. H. S. Klein,
Slave Trade
, p. 45.

  54
. H. S. Klein,
Population History
, p. 83.

  55
. Gudmestad,
Troublesome Commerce
, pp. 3f., 8 (figure).

  56
. P. D. Curtin,
Slave Trade
, p. 27 (n. 16).

  57
. Meyer and Sherman,
Mexican History
, p. 218.

  58
. Stanley L. Engerman and Barry W. Higman, “The Demographic Structure of the Caribbean Slave Societies in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” in Knight,
Slave Societies
, pp. 45–104, at 50 (Tab. 2-1).

  59
. Higman,
Concise History of the Caribbean
, p. 159.

  60
. Kaczyńska,
Gefängnis
, pp. 24f., 44, 53f. (total figure).

  61
. Jonathan W. Daly, “Russian Punishments in the European Mirror,” in: McCaffray and Melancon,
Russia
, pp. 161–88, at 167, 176.

  62
. Waley-Cohen,
Exile
; Lary,
Chinese Migrations
, pp. 79, 83.

  63
. Bullard,
Exile
, p. 17.

  64
. Pérennès,
Déportés
, p. 483.

  65
. Bouche,
Colonisation française
, pp. 185f., and for the greatest detail Pérennès,
Déportés
.

  66
. Rickard
Australia
, pp. 21–25; Marjory Harper, “British Migration and the Peopling of the Empire,” in: Louis,
Oxford History of the British Empire
, vol. 2, pp. 75–87, at 78.

  67
. See the case study in C. Anderson,
Convicts
, which emphasizes the cultural autonomy of the Indian convicts and the fact they were not slaves.

  68
. Isabella,
Risorgimento in Exile
, ch. 1.

  69
. Marrus,
The Unwanted
, p. 17.

  70
. Reiter,
Asyl
, pp. 28–33.

  71
. Alexander,
Geschichte Polens
, pp. 203f.

  72
. N. Davies,
God's Playground
, pp. 276, 287–89.

  73
. Reiter,
Asyl
, p. 38.

  74
. See Hanioğlu,
Young Turks
, pp. 71–78.

  75
. Suny,
Looking toward Ararat
, pp. 67ff.

  76
. Bergère,
Sun Yat-sen
, is the best biography.

  77
. Amrith,
Migration and Diaspora
, pp. 59–62.

  78
. Hsiao Kung-chuan,
A Modern China
, pp. 409ff.

  79
. M. C. Meyer and Sherman,
Mexican History
, pp. 498–500.

  80
. Marrus,
The Unwanted
, p. 18.

  81
. K. Schultz,
Tropical Versailles
, pp. 4, 76.

  82
. Todorov,
Balkan City
, p. 328.

  83
. B. G. Williams,
Crimean Tatars
, pp. 106–8, 119, 138, 148; Kirimli,
National Movements
, pp. 6–11.

  84
. J. H. Meyer,
Immigration
, pp. 16, 27f.

  85
. Jersild,
Orientalism
, pp. 25f.

  86
. Utley,
Sitting Bull
, pp. 182, 191, 231.

  87
. Marrus,
The Unwanted
, p. 23.

  88
. Neubach,
Ausweisungen
, p. 129 (totals) and passim.

  89
. Shannon,
Gladstone
, vol. 2, pp. 166f., 171.

  90
. Karpat,
Ottoman Population
, p. 49. These are high figures: one must put one's faith here in Karpat's great authority.

  91
. McCarthy,
Death and Exile
, p. 90 (Tab. 90).

  92
. Malcolm,
Bosnia
, pp. 139f.

  93
. Mazower,
Salonica
, pp. 298–304, 349.

  94
. Boeckh,
Von den Balkankriegen
, pp. 257–75; total figure calculated from data on pp. 271f. The book does not deal with Romania and Albania.

  95
. The following draws on Marrus,
The Unwanted
, pp. 2739; Kappeler,
Russian Empire
, pp. 267–73; Haumann,
History of East European Jews
, pp. 84ff.

  96
. See Klier and Lambroza,
Pogroms
.

  97
. Marrus,
The Unwanted
, p. 32.

  98
. Ibid., p. 34; Fink,
Defending the Rights of Others
, pp. 22–24, 27–30.

  99
. Volkov,
Juden
, p. 58.

100
. Bade,
Migration in European History
, pp. 40, 129ff.

101
. See Hoerder,
Cultures
, pp. 288–94 on the regional systems of labor migration before the middle of the nineteenth century. Hoerder's book remains the standard text on migration history. It should now be complemented by Dirk Hoerder, “Migrations and Belongings”, in: Rosenberg,
A World Connecting
, pp. 435–589, and Gabaccia and Hoerder,
Connecting Seas
.

102
. Bade,
Migration in European History
, pp. 46ff.

103
. N. G. Owen,
Paradox
, p. 48.

104
. Naquin and Rawski,
Chinese Society
, p. 130.

105
. Stephan,
Russian Far East
, pp. 71–73, 79f.

106
. Gottschang and Lary,
Swallows
, pp. 2, 38: an exemplary case study.

107
. Adas,
Burma Delta
, pp. 42–44, 85ff.

108
. Brocheux and Hémery,
Indochina
, pp. 121f.

109
. Woerkens,
The Strangled Traveler
, pp. 43 ff.; A. J. Major,
State and Criminal Tribes
.

110
. Hoerder,
Cultures
, pp. 381f.; Macfarlane and Macfarlane,
Green Gold
, pp. 141ff.

111
. The following is based on Hoerder,
Cultures
, pp. 306–21; Harzig and Hoerder,
What Is Migration History?
pp. 35–42; Kappeler,
Russian Empire
, pp. 50f., 168–212. See also Dirk Hoerder, “Migrations,” in: Bentley,
World History
, pp. 269–87.

112
. James Forsyth uses this image in his excellent general account:
Peoples of Siberia
, p. 216.

113
. A consistently interesting study, which uses a very broad concept of nomadism leaning on French research, is: Ilja Mieck, “Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Europas von 1650 bis 1850,” in: Fischer,
Handbuch
, vol. 4, pp. 1–233, at 72–74. Cf. W. Reinhard,
Lebensformen
, pp. 325–30. Barfield,
Nomadic Alternative
, is a good ethnic-historical introduction.

114
. Paul,
Far West
, p. 195.

115
. A.K.S. Lambton, “Land Tenure and Revenue Administration in the Nineteenth Century,” in: Avery et al.,
Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. 7, pp. 459–505, at 470f.

116
. Abrahamian,
Iran
, pp. 141f.

117
. Donald Quataert, “The Age of Reforms,” in: Ä°nalcık and Quataert,
Ottoman Empire
, vol. 2, pp. 759–943, at 768f., 873f.

118
. Kasaba,
A Moveable Empire
, p. 86.

119
. The standard ethno-archaeological and ecohistorical work is A. B. Smith,
Pastoralism in Africa
, esp. chs. 6–9.

120
. On “le grand nomadisme,” see Planhol,
Les nations
, pp. 313f.

121
. J. Fisch,
Geschichte Südafrikas
, p. 92; Robert Ross, “Khoesan and Immigrants: The Emergence of Colonial Society in the Cape, 1500–1800,” in: C. Hamilton, et al.,
Cambridge History of South Africa
, vol. 1, pp. 168–210, at 203.

122
. Here see especially Zeleza,
Economic History of Africa
, pp. 72, 117ff.

123
. Austen,
African Economic History
, p. 162.

124
. Eltis and Richardson,
Atlas
, p. 89 (Tab. 4).

125
. Ibid., p. 203 (Tab. 6).

126
. Lovejoy,
Transformations
, p. 154; very important is Ewald,
Soldiers
, pp. 53–56, 163–66.

127
. Lovejoy,
Transformations
, p. 155.

128
. Clarence-Smith discusses all the present-day estimates in:
Islam
, pp. 11–13; the figure is based on Lovejoy's latest revision.

129
. Manning,
Slavery
, p. 83 (Fig. 4.20).

130
. Lovejoy,
Transformations
, p. 142, who estimates 3.46 million slaves for the nineteenth-century Atlantic trade. Eltis (
Volume
, 2001, p. 43, Tab. 1) confirms this with his figure of 3.44 million, drawn partly from other sources.