The Psychology Book (91 page)

Albert Bandura

an adult performing physically and

were exposed to a passive adult

verbally aggressive acts toward the

model only rarely demonstrated

doll. The adult pummeled the large

any kind of physical or verbal

Bobo toy with a mallet, flung it in

aggression. Although Bandura

the air, kicked it, threw it down on

did consider the possibility that

the floor, and beat it. When each

observing aggressive acts merely ❯❯

290 ALBERT BANDURA

Violence in computer games,
and

in the media generally, has been cited

as a potential source of behavior

modeling, although this view has not

been strongly supported by studies.

weakened any inhibitions that

the children may have already

had about behaving violently, the

fact that they often imitated the

exact behavior they had just

seen suggests that observational

learning was taking place.

Violence in the media

Bandura’s research has raised many

important questions surrounding

the prevalence of violence in the

media. If a stranger performing

aggressive acts can be a model of

indicate that exposure to violence

Social learning theorists accept

aggression for children, you might

can actually decrease the amount

that cognition has a part to play

argue that television programs

of aggression in children. This

in modeling, and that cognitive

could also be considered a source

theory—known as the Catharsis

factors mediate the process

of behavior modeling. Modern films

effect—suggests that an individual

between viewing violence and

and television shows include

may be able to relate to a violent

actually imitating it. For instance,

graphic violence, which is often

on-screen character and release

the perception and interpretation

expressed as an acceptable (or at

negative feelings, thereby becoming

of TV violence, and how realistic

least expected) form of behavior,

less aggressive personally than

the program is, are both important

which children who are regularly

prior to the viewing.

intervening variables. Bandura

exposed to the media may feel

Other psychologists regard

also considers that environmental

inclined to imitate. This idea has

television as a form of education,

experiences are another influence

been hotly debated. Many studies

and believe that, as characters

in the social learning of aggression

indicate that violent films and

often serve as role models for

in children. Unsurprisingly,

television shows do not increase

children, they should be positive

people living in neighborhoods

a child’s tendencies toward

models in order to help decrease

with high crime rates are

violence. Some studies even

the general level of violence

more likely to commit acts

prevalent in society.

of violence than those living

Although Bandura himself does

in low-crime areas.

not believe in the Catharsis effect

of viewing aggressive behavior,

Gender development

he was careful to note that there

The social learning theory

was a distinction between learning

underlying Bandura’s research

and performance. Children, he

on childhood aggression has

Exposure to

thought, could certainly learn

important implications for our

aggressive modeling is

aggressive behavior from viewing

understanding of the development

hardly cathartic.

it, but knowledge of violent acts

of gender identity. According to

Albert Bandura

would not necessarily result in

the gender development theory,

committing these acts themselves.

one reason why boys and girls

He warned against assuming a

tend to exhibit differences in their

more direct and causal relationship

behavior is that they are treated

between violence in the media and

differently by their parents (as well

real-world aggression.

as other significant adults and

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 291

peers). It has been shown that

half a century later, reflecting the

people unwittingly tailor their

breadth and scope of his influence.

behavior toward children from birth

His groundbreaking contributions

to match their own gender-role

span many of the fields of

expectations; this encourages

psychology, including social

children to behave according to

cognitive theory, personality

what are considered gender norms.

theory, and even therapeutic

According to Bandura’s

practices. His ideas also serve

findings, children also learn how

as a bridge between preceding

to behave through reinforcement

behaviorist learning theories

and observation learning. By

and subsequent cognitive

imitating the behavior of others,

learning theories.

children are highly likely to receive

Bandura’s focus on processes

positive reinforcement for the type

such as attention, memory, and

Albert Bandura

of behavior that is considered most

motivation marked a departure

Albert Bandura was born to

appropriate to their sex. They will

from studying only observable

Polish parents in the small

also be either directly or subtly

and measurable variables (the

town of Mundare in Alberta,

discouraged from behaving in ways

sole concern of behaviorists)

Canada. He graduated from the

that are not sex-appropriate.

and looked instead to the mental

University of British Columbia,

Although there has been some

realm—the mind—for information

moving on to take his master’s

criticism of Bandura’s work (often

about how people learn. For these

degree and doctorate at the

centered on whether his idea is

reasons, Bandura is considered by

University of Iowa, where his

truly a theory of cognitive

many of his peers to be one of the

interest in learning theory

development), his findings and

most distinguised and influential

developed. In 1953, he took up

theories are still cited and debated

psychologists of all time. ■

a teaching post at Stanford

University, California, where

he is a professor emeritus.

Behavior seen as sex-appropriate
in children,

One of the world’s most

such as independence (in boys) or empathy (in girls),

eminent and influencial

is often positively reinforced by adults’ expectations,

psychologists, Bandura has

as well as by children’s imitation of adults and peers.

received numerous awards,

including the Thorndike

Award for Distinguished

Dependence

Independence

Contributions of Psychology

to Education (1999), and a

Lifetime Achievement Award

Empathy

Self-reliance

from the Association for the

Advancement of Behavior

Therapy (2001). He also has

more than 16 honorary degrees,

and in 1974 was elected

Emotional

president of the American

Emotional

control

Psychological Association.

expressiveness

Key works

Female

Male

1973
Aggression: A Social

Learning Analysis

1977
Social Learning Theory

1986
Social Foundations of

Thought and Action: A Social

Cognitive Theory

292

MORALITY

DEVELOPS IN

S LAIWXREN ST

CE KOHL AGES

BERG (1927–1987)

neither of which could be considered

IN CONTEXT

L
awrence Kohlberg believed

that morality develops

completely acceptable, and noted

gradually throughout

their responses. One example was

APPROACH

childhood and adolescence. In 1956,

whether it was right or wrong for a

Moral development

he began a study involving

man with no money to steal drugs

BEFORE

72 boys between the ages of 10 and

that his sick wife desperately

1923
Sigmund Freud offers

16. He presented the boys with

needed. Kohlberg followed up on 58

a psychoanalytic account

moral dilemmas that required them

of the boys, testing them every three

of moral development.

to choose between two alternatives,

years over the course of 20 years, to

1932
Jean Piaget argues that

morality develops from two

types of reasoning: one that is

Morality develops in six stages
throughout childhood,

adolescence, and adulthood.

subject to the rules of others,

and another that is subject

only to a person’s own rules.

AFTER

In the
two preconventional stages
, moral behavior

1977
American educational

is determined by the concepts of punishment,

psychologist William Damon

reward, and reciprocity.

suggests that young children

are able to take the needs of

others into account, earlier

than Kohlberg claims they are.

In the
two conventional stages
, moral behavior is

1982
American psychologist

consistent with doing what others believe to be

Nancy Eisenberg argues that

right, upholding laws, and maintaining social order.

in order to understand

children’s moral development,

we must examine their

reasoning when faced with

In the
two postconventional stages
, the individual

is the ultimate judge of moral behavior,

conflict between their own

based on his own conscience and universal

needs and those of others.

moral principles rather than social norms.