The Parthenon Enigma (91 page)

67.
Those who interpret this figure as Nyx include L. Robert, “Archäologische Nachlese, XX: Die Götter in der pergamenischen Gigantomachie,”
Hermes
46 (1911): 232–35, and Simon,
Pergamon und Hesiod
. M. Pfanner sees her as Persephone, based on the ribbons behind her head, which terminate in pomegranate flowers; see M. Pfanner, “Bemerkungen zur Komposition und Interpretation des Grossen Frieses von Pergamon,”
AA
94 (1979): 53–55. H. Winnefeld thought the figure was Demeter; see H. Winnefeld,
Die Friese des grossen Altars
(Berlin: G. Reimer, 1910), 146. V. Kästner, “Restaurierung der Friese des Pergamonaltars—zum Abschluss der Arbeiten am Nordfries,”
Jahrbuch Preußischer Kulturbesitz
37 (2000): 159, 170, suggests that the figure is one of the three Fates; Queyrel,
L’autel de Pergame
, 71–73, agrees with Kästner’s general identification as a Fate but proposes further that she is Atropos.

68. For metope 14, see Schwab, “New Evidence for Parthenon East Metope 14.”

69.
M. Kunze, “Neue Beobachtungen zum Pergamonaltar,” in Andreae,
Phyromachos-Probleme
, 123–39. For Tritons, see S. Lattimore,
The Marine Thiasos in Greek Sculpture
(Los Angeles: Institute of Archaeology, University of California, 1976); Webb,
Hellenistic Architectural Sculpture
, 65–66.

70.
The Parthenon frieze measures 160 meters (525 feet) long and just over a meter (3.3 feet) in height, while the Telephos frieze measures 58 meters (190 feet) in length and 1.58 meters (5.1 feet) in height.

71.
Collard, Cropp, and Lee,
Euripides: Selected Fragmentary Plays;
for Telephos, see 17–52; for the Erechtheus, see 148–94.

72.
Brunilde Ridgway emphasizes the role of architectural sculpture as a permanent public statement comparable to “the recitation of a bard or the performance of a play.” Ridgway,
Prayers in Stone
, 8, 82.

73.
A. Scholl, “Zur Deutung des Pergamonaltars als Palast des Zeus,”
JdI
124 (2009): 257–64. I am grateful to Prof. Dr. Scholl for his kind help and hospitality during my study visit to the Pergamon Museum.

74.
Dreyfus and Schraudolph,
Pergamon
, 1:60, no. 5, panel 12.

75.
See Connelly,
Portrait of a Priestess
, 59–64.

76.
V. Käster, “Die Altarterrasse,” in Antikensammlung der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin,
Pergamon: Panorama
, 199–211; Hansen,
Attalids of Pergamon
, 239–40; Ridgway,
Hellenistic Sculpture II
, 38.

77.
For interpretation of the Great Altar as the
heroön
of Telephos, see Radt,
Pergamon
, 55; K. Stähler, “Überlegungen zur architecktonischen Gestalt des Pergamonaltares,” in
Studien zur Religion und Kultur Kleinasiens: Festschrift für Friedrich K. Dörner zum 65. Geburtstag am 28. Februar 1976
, ed. S. Șahin, E. Schwertheim, and J. Wagner (Leiden: Brill, 1978), 838–67; Ridgway,
Hellenistic Sculpture II
, 27–32; Webb,
Hellenistic Architectural Sculpture
, 12–13.

78.
Pausanias,
Description of Greece
5.13.3, 3.26.10.

79.
Pausanias,
Description of Greece
8.4.9.

80.
A. Stewart, “Telephos/Telepinu and Dionysos: A Distant Light on an Ancient Myth,” in Dreyfus and Schraudolph,
Pergamon
, 2:109–20.

81.
S. Brehme, “Die Bibliothek von Pergamone,” in Antikensammlung der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin,
Pergamon: Panorama
, 194–97; W. Hoepfner, “Die Bibliothek Eumenes’ II in Pergamon” and “Pergamon—Rhodos—Nysa—Athen: Bibliotheken in Gymnasien und anderen Lehr- und Forschungsstätten,” in
Antike Bibliotheken
, ed. W. Hoepfner (Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2002), 41–52, 67–80; G. Nagy, “The Library of Pergamon as a Classical Model,” in H. Koester, ed.,
Pergamon: Citadel of the Gods
(Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity Press International, 1998), 185–232; L. Casson,
Libraries in the Ancient World
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2001).

82.
Hurwit,
Athenian Acropolis
, 264–66.

83.
RC
23 (
OGIS
267). The inscription was found in 1883 built into a Turkish gateway on the citadel. J. Muir,
Life and Letters in the Ancient Greek World
(New York: Routledge, 2009), 98–99; Hansen,
Attalids of Pergamon
, 448; Ridgway,
Hellenistic Sculpture II
, 38.

84.
Dreyfus and Schraudolph,
Pergamon
, 1:112, no. 54.

85.
Camp,
Athenian Agora
, 26–27, 35, 202; J. McK. Camp,
The Athenian Agora: A Short Guide to the Excavations
, Agora Picture Book 16 (Princeton, N.J.: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 2003), 35.

86.
Lesk, “Erechtheion and Its Reception,” 43.

87.
Ibid., 126–29.

88.
A. L. Lesk,
“ ‘Caryatides probantur inter pauca operum’
: Pliny, Vitruvius, and the Semiotics of the Erechtheion Maidens at Rome,”
Arethusa
40 (2007): 25–42;
E. Perry,
The Aesthetics of Emulation in the Visual Arts of Ancient Rome
(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 92–93.

89.
J. N. Svoronos,
Les monnaies d’Athènes
(Munich: F. Bruckmann, 1923–1926), 19–20.

90.
Allen,
Why Plato Wrote
, 44. For Plato’s aesthetics, see N. Pappas,
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
,
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-aesthetics/
, esp. sec. 2.4. For mimesis in poetry and the visual arts, see Pollitt,
Ancient View of Greek Art
, 37–41.

91.
Thucydides,
Peloponnesian War
2.37.1.

92.
Ibid., 2.51.2; Hermann,
Morality and Behaviour
, 52, 395–414; Hermann, “Reciprocity, Altruism, and the Prisoner’s Dilemma.”

93.
Euripides,
Erechtheus
F 360.10–50 Kannicht = Lykourgos,
Against Leokrates
100.

94.
Hermann,
Morality and Behaviour
, 342.

EPILOGUE

1.
V. Woolf,
The Diary of Virgina Woolf
, vol. 4, 1931–35 (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1983), 90–91.

2.
Balanos,
Les monuments de l’Acropole
. On Balanos’s restoration work, see Mallouchou-Tufano, “History of Interventions on the Acropolis,” 81, and “Restoration of Classical Monuments.”

3.
Sourvinou-Inwood,
“Reading” Greek Culture
, 10–13; C. Sourvinou-Inwood, “Reading a Myth, Reconstructing Its Constructions,” in
Myth and Symbol 2: Symbolic Phenomena in Ancient Greek Culture
, ed. S. des Bouvrie (Bergen: Norwegian Institute at Athens, 2004), 141, 146–47.

4.
For the history of CCAM, see Mallouchou-Tufano, “Restoration Work on the Acropolis,” in
Proceedings of the Fifth International Meeting.

5.
Korres,
Study of the Restoration of the Parthenon;
Mallouchou-Tufano, Η Αναστύλωση των Αρχαίων Μνημείων; Toganidis, “Parthenon Restoration Project,” 27–38.

6.
Korres,
From Pentelicon to the Parthenon;
Korres,
Stones of the Parthenon
.

7.
Korres, “Recent Discoveries on the Acropolis”; Korres, “Architecture of the Parthenon”; Korres, “History of the Acropolis Monuments”; Korres, “Parthenon from Antiquity to the 19th Century”; Korres, Panetsos, and Seki,
Parthenon
, 68–73; Korres, “Der Pronaos und die Fenster des Parthenon”; Korres, “Die klassische Architektur und der Parthenon.”

8.
Vlassopoulou,
Acropolis and Museum;
Bernard Tschumi Architects,
New Acropolis Museum;
K. Servi,
The Acropolis: The Acropolis Museum
(Athens: Ekdotike Athenon SA, 2011); Tschumi, Mauss, and Tschumi Architects,
Acropolis Museum
. To be sure, the museum has been criticized by some for not showing the full multi-temporal and multicultural life of the Acropolis, including the medieval and Ottoman periods; see Hamilakis, “Museums of Oblivion,” and other criticisms by D. Plantzos, “Behold the Raking Geison: The New Acropolis Museum and Its Context-Free Archaeologies,”
Antiquity
85 (2011): 613–25.

9.
Chaniotis,
Ritual Dynamics in the Ancient Mediterranean
, introduction, 9, sets out the challenges of the source materials and various biases that bedevil the study of ancient ritual in particular and ancient history in general.

10.
Bremmer,
Strange World of Human Sacrifice
, esp. J. Bremmer, “Human Sacrifice: A Brief Introduction,” 1–8.

11.
A. Parpola, “Human Sacrifice in India in Vedic Times and Before,” in Bremmer,
Strange World of Human Sacrifice
, 157–77.

12.
Judges 11:31–40.

13. Genesis 22.

14.
Euripides,
Iphigeneia in Aulis
1585–94; Apollodoros,
Library
3.21.

15.
Kaldellis,
Christian Parthenon
, 34–35; Korres, “The Parthenon from Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century,” 14–161.

16.
Ibid., 40–41; G. Rodenwaldt, “Interpretatio Christiana,”
AA
48 (1933): 401–5.

17.
Mokyr,
Gifts of Athena
, 218–83.

18.
Mokyr,
Gifts of Athena
, 225–26. See also B. Barber, “Resistance by Scientists to Scientific Discovery,” in
The Sociology of Science
, ed. B. Barber and W. Hirsch (New York: Macmillan, 1962), 539–56.

19.
Mokyr,
Gifts of Athena
, 19, 266.

20.
P. G. G. Joly de Lotbinière, “The Parthenon from the Northwest, 1839,” in N. P. Lerebours,
Excursions daguerriennes: Vues et monuments les plus remarquables du globe
(Paris: H. Bossange, 1841–1842).

21.
For an overview of the impact of nineteenth-century photography carried out on the Acropolis, see Hamilakis, “Monumental Visions,” 5–12. During his first visit to Greece, Boissonnas shot a few thousand photographs published in his collections
La Grèce par monts et par vaux
, with D. Baud-Bovy (Geneva: F. Boissonnas, 1910),
L’Acropole d’Athènes
, with G. Fougères (Paris: Albert Morance, 1914),
La Grèce immortelle
(Geneva: Éditions d’Art Boissonnas, 1919), and
Dans le sillage d’Ulysse
, with V. Bérard (Paris: A. Colin, 1933). He traveled to Egypt, Nubia, the Sinai Peninsula, and Mount Athos and published fifty collections of photographs in all. For the work of Mavrommatis, see A. Delivorrias and S. Mavrommatis,
The Parthenon Frieze: Problems, Challenges, Interpretations
(Athens: Melissa, 2004); A. Choremi, C. Hadziaslani, S. Mavrommatis, and E. Kaimara,
The Parthenon Frieze
, CD-ROM (Athens: Acropolis Restoration Service in collaboration with the National Documentation Centre, National Research Foundation, 2003); S. Mavrommatis,
Photographs, 1975–2002, from the Works on the Athenian Acropolis
(Athens: Acropolis Restoration Service, 2002); C. Bouras, K. Zambas, S. Mavrommatis, and C. Hadziaslani,
The Works of the Committee for the Preservation of the Acropolis Monuments on the Acropolis of Athens
(Athens: Ministry of Culture, Archaeological Receipts Fund, 2002); S. Mavrommatis and C. Hadziaslani,
The Parthenon Frieze, Photographic Reconstruction at Scale 1:20
(Athens: Acropolis Restoration Service, 2002); C. Hadziaslani and S. Mavrommatis,
Promenades at the Parthenon.
Films by S. Mavrommatis:
The Works on the Athenian Acropolis: The People and the Monuments; The Parthenon West Frieze, Conservation and Cleaning (2003–2004); The Restoration Works on the Acropolis Monuments (2003–2004).

22.
Lissarrague, “Fonctions de l’image”; F. Lissarrague, lectures, delivered at the Swedish Institute at Athens; Lissarrague and Schnapp, “Imagerie des Grecs”; Connelly, “Parthenon and
Parthenoi
,” 55; Connelly,
Portrait of a Priestess
, 20–21; Marconi, “Degrees of Visibility,” 172; Ferrari,
Figures of Speech
, 17–25; Sourvinou-Inwood,
“Reading” Greek Death
, 140–43.

23.
Hitchens,
Parthenon Marbles;
D. King,
The Elgin Marbles
(London: Hutchinson, 2006); Cosmopoulos,
Parthenon and Its Sculptures;
D. William, “ ‘Of Publick Utility and Publick Property’: Lord Elgin and the Parthenon Sculptures,” in
Appropriating Antiquity
, ed. A. Tsingarida and D. Kurtz (Brussels: Le Livre Timperman, 2002), 103–64; St. Clair,
Lord Elgin and the Marbles;
Vrettos,
Elgin Affair;
C. Hitchens,
Imperial Spoils: The Curious Case of the Elgin Marbles
(New York: Hill and Wang, 1988); T. Vrettos,
A Shadow of Magnitude: The Acquisition of the Elgin Marbles
(New York: G. P. Putnam, 1974).

24.
D. Rudenstine, “The Legality of Elgin’s Taking: A Review Essay of Four Books on the Parthenon Marbles,”
International Journal of Cultural Property
8 (1999): 356–76; J. H. Merryman, “Thinking About the Elgin Marbles,”
Michigan Law Review
83 (1985): 1898–99; J. H. Merryman, “Whither the Elgin Marbles?,” in
Imperialism, Art, and Restitution
, ed. J. H. Merryman (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2006); C. Hitchens,
The Elgin Marbles: Should They Be Returned to Greece?
(London: Verso Books, 1998).