The Parthenon Enigma (86 page)

12.
Boutsikas, “Timing of the Panathenaia.”

13.
See Connelly, “Towards an Archaeology of Performance,” 313–39. For ritual dynamics in the Greek world, see Chaniotis,
Ritual Dynamics in the Ancient Mediterranean
; Chaniotis, “Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean”; Chaniotis, “Rituals Between Norms and Emotions”; A. Chaniotis, “Theater Rituals,” in
The Greek Theatre and Festivals: Documentary Studies
, ed. P. Wilson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 48–66; Chaniotis, “From Woman to Woman”; Chaniotis, “Dynamics of Ritual Norms in Greek Cult”; Chaniotis, “Dynamic of Emotions”; Mylonopoulos, “Greek Sanctuaries”; I. Mylonopoulos, “The Dynamics of Ritual Space in the Hellenistic and Roman East,”
Kernos
21 (2008): 9–39; Connelly,
Portrait of a Priestess
, 29–31, 153–57. For aesthetics and multimedia aspects of rituals and festivals, see Bierl,
Ritual and Performativity;
A. Bierl, “Prozessionen auf der griechischen Bühne: Performativität des einziehenden Chors als Manifestation des Dionysos in der Parodos der Euripideischen Bakchen,” in
Medialität der Prozession: Performanz ritueller Bewegung in Texten und Bildern der Vormoderne—Médialité de la procession: performance du movement rituel en textes et en images à l’époque pré-moderne
, ed. K. Gvozdeva (Heidelberg: Winter, 2011), 35–61; A. Bierl, “Pädramatik auf der antiken Bühne: Das attische Drama als Spiel und ästhetischer Diskurs,” in
Lücken sehen: Beiträge zu Theater und Performanz: Festschrift für Hans-Thies Lehmann zum 66. Geburtstag
, ed. M. Gross and P. Primavesi (Heidelberg: Winter, 2010), 69–82; A. Kavoulaki, “Choral Self-Awareness: On the Introductory Anapaests of Aeschylus’
Supplices
,” in
Archaic and Classical Choral Song: Performance, Politics, and Dissemination
, ed. L. Athanassaki and E. Bowie (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), 365–90. I thank Darby English for helpful discussions of this material.

14. Smith,
Athens
, 26–27; L. E. Pearce, “Sacred Texts and Canonicity: Mesopotamia,” in
Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide
, ed. S. I. Johnston (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 2004), 627–28.

15.
S. D. Houston, “Impersonation, Dance, and the Problem of Spectacle Among the Classic Maya,” in Inomata and Coben,
Archaeology of Performance
, 139, 144; N. Grube, “Classic Maya Dance: Evidence from Hieroglyphs and Iconography,”
Ancient Mesoamerica
3 (1992): 201–18.

16.
R. C. T. Parker, “Greek Religion,” in J. Boardman, J. Griffin, and O. Murray,
Oxford History of the Classical World
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 254–74; Parker,
Polytheism and Society;
Bremmer,
Greek Religion;
Kearns, “Order, Interaction, Authority”; Connelly,
Portrait of a Priestess
, 6.

17.
Connelly,
Portrait of a Priestess
, 2–5, 24–55, 85–87, 90–92, 197–215.

18.
J. Blok, “Virtual Voices: Towards a Choreography of Women’s Speech in Classical Athens,” in
Making Silence Speak: Women’s Voices in Greek Literature and Society
, ed. A. P. M. H. Lardinois and L. McClure (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001), 112–14; Kyle,
Sport and Spectacle
, 167; Ober,
Democracy and Knowledge
, 195–96; R. Osborne,
The World of Athens: An Introduction to Classical Athenian Culture
(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 116–17, who says there are 130 datable festivals plus more that are not datable.

19.
Hesiod,
Theogony
535–65, and Pseudo-Hyginus,
Astronomica
2.15, tell the story of how Prometheus, having stolen fire, prepared an animal sacrifice for Zeus. He divided the portions of the slaughtered animal into two groups: one with ox meat and juicy innards wrapped up in stomach lining and the other with ox bones wrapped up in their own rich fat. Prometheus offered Zeus a choice between the two, and Zeus took the bundle of inedible bones in fat, since it looked tastier. Thereafter gods always received the inedible parts of the sacrificial victim while the tasty cuts were reserved for humankind.

20.
J. Swaddling,
The Ancient Olympic Games
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999), 11; Kyle,
Sport and Spectacle
, 8.

21.
Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 490–93.

22.
P. Themelis, “Panathenaic Prizes and Dedications,” in Palagia and Choremi-Spetsieri,
Panathenaic Games
, 21–32; Kyle, “Gifts and Glory”; Tracy and Habicht, “New and Old Panathenaic Victor Lists.”

23.
Athenian colonists at Brea sent a cow and panoply to the Great Panathenaia in the third quarter of the fifth century.
IG
I
³
46.15–16.

24.
J. Shear, “Prizes from Athens: The List of Panathenaic Prizes and the Sacred Oil,”
ZPE
142 (2003): 87–108; P. Siewert, “Zum historischen Hintergrund der frühen Panathenäen und Preisamphoren,” in
Panathenaïka: Symposion zu den Panathenäischen Preisamphoren, Rauischholzhausen 25.11.–29.11. 1998
, ed. M. Bentz and N. Eschbach (Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2001); M. Bentz,
Panathenäische Preisamphoren: Eine athenische Vasengattung und ihre Funktion vom 6.–4. Jahrhundert v. Chr.
(Basel: Vereinigung der Freunde Antiker Kunst, 1998); Kyle, “Gifts and Glory”; R. Hamilton, “Panathenaic Amphoras: The Other Side,” in Neils,
Worshipping Athena
, 137–62; J. Neils, “Panathenaic Amphoras: Their Meaning, Makers, and Markets,” in Neils,
Goddess and Polis
, 29–51; R. Hampe, “Zu den panathenäische Amphoren,” in
Antikes und modernes Griechenland
, ed. R. Hampe (Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 1984), 145–49; J. R. Brandt, “Archaeologica Panathenaica I: Panathenaic Prize-Amphorae from the Sixth Century
B.C.
,”
Acta ad Archaeologiam et Artium Historiam Pertinentia
8 (1978): 1–23; E. von Brauchitsch,
Die Panathenäischen Preisamphoren
(Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1910).

25.
C. Hadziaslani, ТΩΝ ΑΘΗΝΗΘΕΝ ΑΘΛΩΝ (Athens: Acropolis Restoration Service, Department of Information and Education, 2003).

26.
British Museum GR 1842.0728.834, Burgon Group (B130).
ABV
89;
Para.
33, no. 1;
Addenda
²
24; Neils,
Goddess and Polis
, 30, 93; Bentz,
Panathenäische Preisamphoren
, 123.

27. Metropolitan Museum of Art 1989.21.89; 540–30
B.C.
The reduced size of this vase and absence of the official inscription (“from the games at Athens”) indicate that this was not actually a prize amphora but modeled on one. M. B. Moore, “The Princeton Painter in New York,”
MMAJ
42 (2007): 26, 28, 30, 42, 45; E. J. Milleker, “Ancient Art: Gifts from the Norbert Schimmel Collection,”
MMAB
49 (1992): 40–41; M. Popkin, “Roosters, Columns, and Athena on Early Panathenaic Prize Amphoras: Symbols of a New Athenian Identity,”
Hesperia
81 (2012): 207–35.

28.
Mikalson,
Sacred and Civil Calendar
, 34 and 199, summarizes the various reconstructions of the time span of the festival, some of which have it starting as early as the twenty-first of Hekatombaion. See also Neils,
Goddess and Polis;
J. Neils, “The Panathenaia: An Introduction,” in Neils,
Goddess and Polis
, 13–27; J. Neils, “The Panathenaia and Kleisthenic Ideology,” in Coulson et al.,
Archaeology of Athens and Attica Under the Democracy
, 151–60; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 7–8; Simon,
Festivals of Attica
, 55.

29.
Kallisthenes,
FGrH
124 F 52.

30.
IG
II
²
2311;
SEG
37.129, with large bibliography. See Tracey and Habicht, “New and Old Panathenaic Victor Lists,” 187–236; Neils,
Goddess and Polis
, 15–17, fig. 1; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 237, 389, 1056–59, 1162–66.

31.
See Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 83–84.

32.
See Hurwit,
Age of Perikles
, 214–16, 243; Goette,
Athens, Attica, and the Megarid
, 53–54. The building identified as the Odeion of Perikles measures roughly 62.4 by 68.6 meters (200 by 225 feet) and is believed to have held four thousand to five thousand people. Plutarch,
Life of Perikles
13.5–6, describes it: “The Odeion, or music room, which in its interior was full of seats and ranges of pillars, and outside had its roof made to slope and descend from one single point at the top, was constructed, we are told, in imitation of the king of Persia’s pavilion [
skênê
]. This was done by Perikles’s order.” Pausanias,
Description of Greece
1.20.4, also mentions that the Odeion looked like Xerxes’s tent. Excavations on the site have revealed an arrangement of internal pillars, set in nine rows of ten, supporting the roof in a manner reminiscent of poles in a tent. We are told by Vitruvius,
Ten Books of Architecture
5.9.1, that the building was covered with timber from captured Persian ships. Its function as a music hall, however, is contested and some think it was a school or lecture hall.

33.
The “Hephaestia inscription” of 421
B.C.
,
IG
I
³
82, mentions a
penteteris
, the Agora, and a musical contest for Athena and Hephaistos;
SEG
54.46, with bibliography.

34.
E. Csapo and W. J. Slater, eds.,
The Context of Athenian Drama
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995), 79–80, 109–10; Hurwit,
Athenian Acropolis
, 216–17.

35.
T. Inomata and L. Coben have explored this phenomenon in Classic Maya and Inka contexts; see
Archaeology of Performance
.

36.
Lykourgos,
Against Leokrates
102. Translation: Burtt,
Minor Attic Orators
.

37.
For discussion of the Panathenaic Regulation see G. Nagy, “Performing and Reperforming of Masterpieces,” 4.6–11, and
Plato’s Rhapsody and Homer’s Music
, 36–37. See also H. A. Shapiro, “Hipparchos and the Rhapsodes,” in
Cultural Poetics in Archaic Greece: Cult, Performance, Poetics
, ed. C. Dougherty and L. Kurke (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 92–107.

38.
In the pseudo-Platonic dialogue known as the
Hipparchos
228b–c, Sokrates says that Hipparchos was “the first to bring over to this land the verses of Homer, and he required the rhapsodes at the Panathenaia to go through these verses in sequence, by relay, just as they do even nowadays”; translation by G. Nagy, “Performing and Reperforming of Masterpieces,” 19. For rhapsodic events, see Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 365–68.

39.
See victors’ list,
SEG
41.115, col. 3.39–43, dating to 162/161
B.C.

40.
Plutarch,
Life of Perikles
13.6.

41.
H. A. Shapiro, “Les rhapsodes aux Panathénées et la céramique à Athènes à
l’époque archaïque,” in
Culture et cité: L’avènement d’Athènes à l’époque archaïque
, ed. A. Verbanck-Piérard and D. Viviers (Brussels: De Bouccard, 1995), 127–37; H. A. Shapiro, “Mousikoi Agones: Music and Poetry at the Panathenaia,” in Neils,
Goddess and Polis
, 53–75; H. Kotsidu,
Die musischen Agone der Panathenäean in archaischer und klassischer Zeit: Eine historisch-archäologische Untersuchung
(Munich: Tuduv, 1991). For the
aulos, see West,
Ancient Greek Music
, 1–2, 50–56, 61–70, 81–109; P. Wilson, “The Aulos in Athens,” in Goldhill and Osborne,
Performance Culture and Athenian Democracy
, 58–95, 69–79; C. Schafter, “Musical Victories in Early Classical Vase Painting,”
AJA
95 (1991): 333–34; M. F. Vos, “Aulodic and Auletic Contests,” in
Enthousiasmos: Essays in Greek and Related Pottery Presented to J. M. Hemelrijk
, ed. H. A. G. Brijder, A. A. Drukker, and C. W. Neeft (Amsterdam: Allard Pierson Museum, 1986), 122–30.

42.
Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia”; for aulos and kythara competitions, see 352–65; for rhapsodic contests, see 365–68.

43.
West,
Ancient Greek Music
, 53–56.

44.
Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 352–65.

45.
Boegehold, “Group and Single Competitions at the Panathenaia”; Kyle, “Gifts and Glory”; D. Kyle, “The Panathenaic Games: Sacred and Civic Athletics,” in Neils,
Goddess and Polis
, 77–101; Kyle,
Athletics in Ancient Athens;
N. B. Crowther, “Studies in Greek Athletics, Part II,”
CW
79 (1985–1986): 73–135; N. B. Crowther, “Studies in Greek Athletics, Part I,”
CW
78 (1984–1985): 497–558; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 244–54; A. J. Papalas, “Boy Athletes in Ancient Greece,”
Stadion
17 (1991): 165–92.

46.
Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 244–54.

47.
G. Waddell, “The Greek Pentathlon,” in
Greek Vases in the J. Paul Getty Museum 5
(Malibu, Calif.: J. Paul Getty Museum, 1991), 99–106; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 254–57.

48.
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 1916.16.71;
ABV
404, no. 8;
Para
. 175, no. 8; Bentz,
Panathenäische Preisamphoren
, 139, no. 5.009, 44–45.

49.
Pliny,
Natural History
34.59; Pausanias,
Description of Greece
6.4.1–3.