The Origins of the British: The New Prehistory of Britain (74 page)

85. Semino et al. (2004) and present study. However, J2 does seem to have moved partly through southern France to Britain rather than round it.

86. Overall J frequency in British Isles (mainly J2), 2% (38/2,082), frequency in southern Britain 4–7%. Frequencies in Spain: Valencia 16.1%, Galicia 15.1%, Catalonia 3.7% (this study). For European/African distribution and ages of J, see Semino et al. (2004); see also Richards (2003).

87. Age of E3b in the British Isles, main cluster: 4,500 years (rooted on Ht.
66, n
= 20, SD 2,480). Three smaller E3b clusters give dates of the same order – total British
n
= 47. Highest rate Abergele 33.3% (6/18 – 4 haplotypes belonging to 3 clusters i.e.
not
an extreme founder event); Southwell 5.7%. For European/African distribution and ages see Semino et al. (2004) and Cruciani et al. (2004); see also Richards (2003).

88
. The prehistory of E3b is complex, but its most important expansion into western Europe (E-M78a) seems to have originated in the Balkans. See Cruciani et al. (2004) and Semino et al. (2004).

89
. E3b and I1b2 are both represented significantly in Wales and Ireland, while J2 is only represented at a very low level in Wales and not at all in Ireland (present study). J2 derives from the Near East: see Semino et al. (2004).

90
. Haak et al. (2005).

91
. ‘Neolithic skeletons from 16 sites of the LBK/AVK [Alfldi Vonaldiszes Kerámia] culture from Germany, Austria, and Hungary … All human remains were dated to the LBK or AVK period (7,500 to 7,000 years ago) on the basis of associated cultural finds’ (Haak et al. 2005). Identities of ancient maternal haplotypes in Haak’s study: ‘Eighteen of the sequences belonged to typical western Eurasian mtDNA branches; there were seven H or V sequences [4H, 2HV and 1V], five
T sequences, four K sequences, one J sequence, and one U3 sequence.’ It should be noted that, of these eighteen, eleven comprised 3T2, T3, T*, 4K, J* and U3, reflecting more of a Mesolithic complexion. For relative Mesolithic dating of T2 and K as European founders, see Richards et al. (2000), figure 1.

92
. See e.g. figure 1 in Richards et al. (2000).

93
. Haak et al. (2005). For Anatolia see Tambets et al. (2000).

94
. Ricaut et al.(2004).

95
. Herodotus,
Histories
4.21

96
. The film
King Arthur
(2004), directed by Antoine Fuqua.

97
. Reviewed in Richards (2003).

98
. 11/146 = 7.5% estimated on haplogroups I1a
(n
= 5), I*/I1*
(n
= 3), I1b/I1b*
(n
= 1), E3b
(n
= 1) and KxPN3
(n
= 1).

99
. Post-Mesolithic estimate in present study for Norfolk and Fens: 34.6% (46/133). Anglo-Saxon homeland and overall Scandinavian intrusive haplotypes in this region are estimated at 7.5% (10/133) and 13.5% (18/133), respectively. The Scandinavian types comprise a large proportion of Neolithic entrants.

100
. McEvoy et al. (2004).

101
. Richards et al. (2000).

102
. British figures, present study, shown graphically in Figures 5.4 and 5.6–5.8. Neolithic intrusion from north-west Europe estimated by summing the following gene clusters: I1a-2′1b, I1a-4, I1a-5, I1a-6b, I1a-7b, R1a1-1 and R1a1-2b. Neolithic intrusion from south-west Europe estimated by summing the following gene groups and gene clusters: E3, J, FxIJK, I* and I1b.

103
. Present study.

104
. See
Chapter 6
. See also e.g. Renfrew (1989), Diamond and Bellwood (2003).

105
. Father clearly having a Gaelic name, see Hill et al. (2000) (and derived figures in the present study).

106
. ‘Surname subdivision reveals a cline in Irish samples, with exogenous samples clearly showing lower frequencies of
Hg1
[i.e. effectively of R1b] (English, 62.5%; Scottish, 52.9%; Norman/Norse, 83.0%) than Gaelic Irish samples (Leinster, 73.3%; Ulster, 81.1%; Munster, 94.6%), which almost reach fixation in the westernmost province (Connaught, 98.3%)’ (Hill et al. 2000).

107
. Hill et al. (2000).

108
. i.e. those discussed so far in this book.

109
. Richards et al. (2000), Pereira et al. (2005).

110
. Vennemann (2003), see particularly the Introduction summary by Dr Noel.

111
. Richards (2003).

112
. Forster et al. (2006).

113
. Dyen et al. (1992).

114
. Cunliffe (2004), p. 175ff.

115
. Cunliffe (2004), p.187.

116
. Cunliffe (2004), p. 169.

117
. Scarre (1995), p. 13.

118
. Cunliffe (2004), p. 190.

119
. Cunliffe (2004), pp. 187–9.

120
. Cunliffe (2004), pp. 160–1.

121
. See
Chapter 6
and also Renfrew (1989).

122
. Richards et al. (2000); for a review see Richards (2003).

123
. A survey of European ponies and horses shows a geographically localized mitochondrial ‘cluster C1, which is distinctive for northern European ponies’ (Jansen et al. 2002), including Viking, Shetland and Highland ponies (see p. 239).

124
. The confidence intervals for dates of this genetic expansion (see note 122 below) actually include the whole Neolithic period in Western Europe, so would not falsify a Kurgan migration either. European dates of I1a: table 3 in Rootsi et al. (2004); British dates: present study. See the earlier section ‘Ian: the northern Neolithic line?’ and Appendix C.

125
. Tambets et al. (2004), table 3.

126
. Rosser et al. (2000).

127
. Present study, R1a1-2b. Age in Norway 5,700 years (rooted on Ht. 87,
n
= 37, SD ±2,160), in British Isles 5,600 years (rooted on Ht. 87,
n
= 38, SD ±2,650). This evidence suggests that a Neolithic Norwegian cluster expanded to Shetland, where a genetic founding event dates to the same period of the Mesolithic– Neolithic transition. For the Shetland Mesolithic–Neolithic transition see Melton and Nicholson (2004).

128
. Gimbutas (1970).

129
. Present study. R1a1-3 forms two founding clusters in Britain dating to the Late Neolithic/Bronze Age, 3a and 3c, rooted on haplotypes 95 and 93, respectively. Age of R1a1-3a in British Isles, 4,080 years (rooted on Ht. 95,
n
= 22, SD ±2,260); age of R1a1-3c in British Isles, 3,660 years (rooted on Ht. 93,
n
= 7, SD ±3,660). A third sub-cluster, R1a1-3b, is more consistent with a Dark Ages entry to the British Isles (see pp. 393–4): age in Norway, 3,200 years (rooted
on Ht. 96,
n
= 20, SD ±1,920); in British Isles 1,830 years (rooted on Ht. 96,
n
= 21, SD ±1,831).

130
. Cunliffe (2004), pp. 255–60; and Scarre (1995), p. 117.

131
. Cunliffe (2004), pp. 217–18.

132
. Cunliffe (2004), p. 246.

133
. Tom Higham, ‘Radiocarbon dating’, Wessex Archaelology,
http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/projects/amesbury/tests/radiocarbon.html
>.

134
. Carol Chenery, ‘The Amesbury Archer: oxygen isotope analysis’, Wessex Archaelology
http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/projects/amesbury/tests/oxygen_isotope.html
>.

135
. Cunliffe (2004), pp. 218–19.

136
. Lewis (1996).

137
. Caution should be exercised in the genetic interpretation, since the total sample size for Abergele is only
n
= 18, but the larger nearby Llangefni sample shares similar lines, and random chance does not explain their unique make-up, diversity and behaviour in Principal Components Analysis.

138
. Clearly, the problems of dating and the difficulty in detecting repeated migrations from the same source would tend to blunt my assertion; see also the discussions in Richards (2003) and McEvoy et al. (2004).

139
. Lineages derived from north-west Europe, putatively during the Bronze Age, contribute overall 3.1% (65/2,082) to modern British male lines (for details see note 142 below); and from Iberia: potentially E3b, J and I1b2 (but difficult to distinguish from Neolithic gene flow).

140
. Cunliffe (2004), p. 287.

141
. Cunliffe (2004), pp. 247–50, figure 6.18.

142
. Cunliffe (2004), p. 290.

143
. Cunliffe (2004), p. 281.

144
. Cunliffe (2004), pp. 292–3.

145
. Cunliffe (2004), pp. 291–2.

146
. Clusters I1a-6a (
n
= 21), I1a-7a (
n
= 13), R1a1-3a (
n
= 22) and R1a1-3c (
n
= 10). Total
n
= 66/2,082 (3.2% of British gene pool). British age of I1a-6a cluster, 3,800 years (rooted on Ht. 424,
n
= 10, SD ±2,870); I1a-7a, 3,940 years (rooted on Ht. 461,
n
= 13, SD ±2,420); R1a1-3a, 4,080 years (rooted on Ht. 95,
n
= 22, SD ±2,260); and R1a1-3c, 3,660 years (rooted on Ht. 93,
n
= 7, SD ±3,660).

147
. I1a-7a (East Anglia from northern Germany and Denmark): British age 3,940 years (rooted on Ht. 461,
n
= 13, SD ±2,420); I1a-6a (from Norway to northeastern Britain, including the Orkneys and Shetland): British age 3,800 years (rooted on Ht. 424,
n
= 10, SD ±2,870).

148
. From North Germany and Denmark to the east coast of England: R1a1-3a, age 4,080 years (rooted on Ht. 95,
n
= 22, SD ±2,260); R1a1-3c, 3,660 years (rooted on Ht. 93,
n
= 7, SD ±3,660; from Norway to the Scottish islands).

149
. Concerning equine clusters C1 and E: ‘A total of 17 of 19 documented horses with C1 are northern European ponies (Exmoor, Fjord, Icelandic and Scottish Highland). Additionally, 14 of 27 undocumented horses [3] with C1 are ponies, including Connemara ponies … Furthermore, mtDNA cluster E (
n
= 16) consists entirely of Icelandic, Shetland and Fjord ponies’ (Jansen et al. 2002). The distribution of C1 is restricted to the Balkans, the British Isles and Scandinavia, including Iceland.

150
. Two alternative fossil calibrations gave genetic dates for C1 of 8,000 years and 2,000 years. ‘The cluster is younger than perhaps 8,000 y … but definitely older than 1,500 y, because C1 was also found in two ancient Viking horses’ (Jansen et al. 2002).