The Mind and the Brain (53 page)

“Volitional effort”:
James, 1992, pp. 417–418.

“master of course of thought”:
Majjhima Nikåya, Sutta 20. Translated in: Nyanaponika Thera & Bhikku Bodhi. 1995.
The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha.
Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, p. 213.

“strange arrogance”:
James, 1983, pp. 429–430.

“It is volition, monks, that I declare to be Karma (Action)”:
Anguttara Nikåya VI, 63.
Numerical Discourses
, p. 173.

“Volition becomes the chief”
: Ledi Sayadaw. 1999.
The Manuals of Dhamma
. Maharastra, India: Vipassana Research Institute, p. 95.

“[One] branch of these bifurcations”
: James, 1992, p. 593.

C
HAPTER
T
EN

copy of James’s
: Page references for William James are to the following editions: James, William. 1992. Psychology: Briefer course, In:
William James Writings 1878–1899
. New York: Library of America, p. 272,278. James, William. 1983.
The principles of psychology
. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, p. 429.

“pivotal question”
: James, 1890/1983, p. 424.

“
footlights
’”: James, 1890/1983, p. 426.

“limited processing resources”
: Kastner, S., & Ungerleider, L. G. 2000. Mechanisms of visual attention in the human cortex.
Annual Review of Neuroscience, 23
, pp. 315–341.

Selectively focusing attention on target images
: Kastner, S. & Ungerleider, L. G. 2001. The neural basis of biased competition in human visual cortex.
Neuropsychologia
, 39, pp. 1263–1276.

“biasing the brain circuit for the important stimuli”
: Desimone, R. 1998. Visual attention mediated by biased competition in extrastriate visual cortex.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences, 353
, pp. 1245–1255.

fascinating series of experiments
: see the papers referenced in the two preceding notes.

activity spikes in human brains
: Kastner, S., Pinsk, M. A., De Weerd, P., Desimone, R., & Ungerleider, L. G. 1999. Increased activity in human visual cortex during directed attention in the absence of visual stimulation.
Neuron
, 22, pp. 751–761.

In 1990, researchers
: Corbetta, M., Miezin, F. M., Dobmeyer, S., et al. 1990. Attentional modulation of neural processing of shape, color, and velocity in humans.
Science
, 248, pp. 1556–1559; Corbetta, M., Miezin, F. M., Dobmeyer, S., et al. 1991. Selective and divided attention during visual discriminations of shape, color, and speed: Functional anatomy by positron emission tomography.
Journal of Neuroscience, 11
, pp. 2383–2402.

during the directing of such selective attention
: Rees, G. & Lavie, N. 2001. What can functional imaging reveal about the role of attention in visual awareness?
Neuropsychologia, 39
, pp. 1343–1353; de Fockert, J.W., Rees, G., Frith, C.D., & Lavie, N. 2001. The role of working memory in visual selective attention.
Science, 291
, pp. 1803–1806; Vandenberghe, R., Duncan, J., Arnell, K. M., et al. 2000. Maintaining and shifting attention within left or right hemi-field.
Cerebral Cortex
, 10, pp. 706–713.

paying attention to the vibrations
: Meyer, E., Ferguson, S. S., Zatorre, R. J., et al. 1991. Attention modulates somatosensory cerebral blood flow response to vibrotactile stimulation as measured by positron emission tomography.
Annals of Neurology
, 29, pp. 440–443.

“can sculpt brain activity”
: Robertson, 1999, p. 43.

fascinating experiment, Dick Passingham:
Jueptner, M., Stephan, K. M., Frith, C.D., et al. 1997. Anatomy of motor learning. I. Frontal cortex and attention to action.
Journal of Neurophysiology, 77
, pp. 1313–1324; Toni, I., et al. 1998. The time course of changes during motor sequence learning: A whole-brain fMRI study.
NeuroImage, 8
, p. 50.

willful selection of self-initiated responses:
Jenkins, I. H., Jahanshahi, M., Jueptner, M., et al. 2000. Self-initiated versus externally triggered movements. II. The effect of movement predictability on regional cerebral blood flow.
Brain, 123
, pp. 1216–1228.

fusiform face area: Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J., & Chun, M. M. 1997. The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception.
Journal of Neuroscience, 17
, pp. 4302–4311; Kanwisher, N., & Wojciulik, E. 2000. Visual attention: Insights from brain imaging.
Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1
, pp. 91–100.

as the MIT team stated it:
Wojciulik, E., Kanwisher, N., & Driver, J. 1998. Covert visual attention modulates face-specific activity in the human fusiform gyrus: fMRI study.
Journal of Neurophysiology, 79
, pp. 1574–1578.

an image in your mind’s eye
: O’Craven, K. M. & Kanwisher, N. 2000. Mental imagery of faces and places activates corresponding stimulus-specific brain regions.
Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12
, pp. 1013–1023.

“active participants in our own process of perception”:
Kanwisher, N., & Downing, P. 1998. Separating the wheat from the chaff.
Science, 282
, pp. 57–58.

“altered by patterns of attention”:
Merzenich & deCharms, 1996, p. 62.
tonotopic reorganization of the auditory cortex:
Recanzone, G. H., Schreiner, C. E., & Merzenich, M. M. 1993. Plasticity in the frequency representation of primary auditory cortex following discrimination training in adult owl monkeys.
Journal of Neuroscience, 13
, pp. 87–103.

“Experience coupled with attention”:
Merzenich & deCharms, 1996, p. 77.

the more stroke patients concentrated on their tasks:
Taub, E., & Morris, D. M. 2001. Constraint-induced movement therapy to enhance recovery after stroke.
Current Atherosclerosis Reports, 3,
pp. 279–286; Taub, E., Uswatte, G., & Pidikiti, R. 1999. Constraint-induced movement therapy: A new family of techniques with broad application to physical rehabilitation; a clinical review.
Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 36
, pp. 237–251.

“just after a right-brain stroke”:
Robertson, 1999, p. 108.

“steadily before the mind”
: James, 1983, p. 1169.

He himself used it
: Ibid., p. 1152.

Bell’s Theorem
: Bell, 1987; Stapp, 2001, pp. 1475–1479.

Albert Einstein and two younger colleagues
: Einstein, A., Podolsky, B., & Rosen, N. 1935. Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality be considered complete?
Physical Review
, 47, pp. 777–780.

David Bohm
: Gribbin, John. 1995.
Schrödinger’s kittens and the search for reality: Solving the quantum mysteries
. New York: Little, Brown.

Schrödinger called entanglement
: Zeilinger, A. 2000. The quantum centennial.
Nature
, 408, pp. 639–641.

experiments by Alain Aspect
: Aspect, A., Dailbard, J., & Roger, G. 1982. Experimental test of Bell inequalities using time-varying analyzers.
Physical Review Letters, 49 (25)
, pp. 1804–1807.

Aspect’s conclusions were confirmed
: Tittle, W., Brendel, J., Zbinden, H., & Gisin, N. 1998. Violation of Bell inequalities by photons more than 10 km apart.
Physical Review Letters, 81 (17)
, pp. 3563–3566. See also Stapp, H. A Bell-type theorem without hidden variables.
American Journal of Physics
, in press. Appears at www-physics. lbl.gov/~stapp/stappfiles.html, where Stapp shows that nonlocality holds within an orthodox quantum perspective.

“most momentous in the history of science”
: Nadeau, R., & Kafatos, M. 1999.
The non-local universe: The new physics and matters of the mind
. New York: Oxford University Press.

called the Quantum Zeno Effect
: Misra, B., & Sudarshan, E. C. G. 1977. Zeno’s paradox in quantum-theory.
Journal of Mathematical Physics, 18 (4)
, pp. 756–763. An approachable description of Quantum Zeno is in: Milonni, P. W. 2000.
Nature, 405
, p. 526.

“The wave function has ceased oozing”:
Rothman, T., & Sudarshan, G. 1998.
Doubt and certainty.
Reading, Mass.: Perseus Books, p. 290.

the probability that beryllium ions would decay:
Casti, J. L. 2000.
Paradigms regained.
New York: William Morrow, p. 233.

activates the same regions of the brain:
Kosslyn S. M., Ganis, G., & Thompson, W. N. 2001. Neural foundations of imagery.
Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2
(9), pp. 635–642.

the migration of calcium ions:
Stapp, 2001, p. 1485.

“bootstrapping effect”:
Varela, F. 1999. Present-time consciousness.
Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6
(2–3), pp. 111–140.

“coexistence with the triumphant thought of other thoughts”:
James, 1983, p. 1172.

Note: Entries in this index, carried over verbatim from the print edition of this title, are unlikely to correspond to the pagination of any given e-book reader. However, entries in this index, and other terms, may be easily located by using the search feature of your e-book reader.

Page numbers in
italics
refer to illustrations.

action potential, 105

afferent input, 224

agnostic physicalism, 41, 44

Alcmaeon of Croton, 23, 24

Allard, Terry, 177, 181–88, 209–10

Allen, Mildred, 133, 214

amputation, 204, 225

amygdala, 24, 36,
63
, 68,
69, 94
, 97

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS; Lou Gehrig’s disease), 315

Anafranil (clomipramine hydrochloride), 58

Anderson, Larry, 147–48

Anicca, 9, 45

animal rights movement, 15, 132–33, 135–36, 148–56, 159, 161, 195

anterior cingulate cortex, 68

anterior cingulate gyrus, 62,
63
, 65,
69
, 71, 73, 74, 75, 91, 93, 241, 331, 335,
362

anterior cingulate sulcus, 48

anticipatory skin conductance responses, 66

antidepressants, 245, 249

anxiety, 368, 371

anxiety management, 239

aphasia, 100, 196, 198

Aplysia californica
(sea snail), 108–10

Aristotle, 23, 273

Aspect, Alain, 347–48

attention, 323–64

brain and, 337, 340–41, 364, 366

consciousness and, 324, 325, 364, 367, 369–70

distraction vs., 17, 329–30, 338

focused, 18, 293, 328, 332–34, 374

mindfulness and, 294, 296, 334–36, 339, 353, 355

neurons in, 327–31, 333, 338, 340, 367

in neuroplasticity, 212, 215, 220, 222, 224, 233, 243, 248, 318, 321–22, 334, 338–42, 367, 368–69

OCD and, 7, 14, 85, 341–42, 354, 359–60,
362

physiology of, 328–29

quantum physics of, 278, 321, 324–25, 357,
362–63

selective, 327–31
volition and, 297, 298, 309, 310, 314, 317, 320, 324–25, 326, 330, 335–37, 338, 342, 361, 364, 368–71

wise, 88, 294, 296

attention deficit disorder, 371

auditory cortex, 36, 101, 102–3, 118–20, 126, 167, 313, 334

mapping of, 204

neuroplasticity of, 212, 228, 338

primary, 314, 338

in SLI, 226–29, 231–33, 236

tinnitus and, 222

tonotopic reorganization of, 338

auditory-language association cortices, 314

auditory processing, 230, 233, 236

auditory thalamus, 102

avoidance conditioning, 140

awareness training, 243

axons,
69
, 103–5,
104
, 107, 110–11, 115–17, 121, 122, 252, 258, 284, 315

neuronal, 159

thalamic, 113–14

backwards masking problem, 228

Bare Attention, 10–11, 76–77, 370

Barzun, Jacques, 6

basal ganglia,
69
, 98, 114, 172, 301, 331

in OCD circuit, 71, 74, 90, 93, 237, 241, 244, 316, 356

in Tourette’s syndrome, 237, 238, 242

Baxter, Lewis, 3–4, 71, 88, 91

Bechara, Antoine, 65–66

behavior, reflexive, 32

behavioral conditioning, 140

behaviorism, behavior therapy, 1–7, 38, 92, 134, 137, 144, 160, 204–5, 210, 212, 215–16, 299

free will and, 259

for OCD, 1–7, 59–61, 74–76, 240

for Tourette’s syndrome, 239, 242–44

see also
cognitive-behavioral therapy

Bell, John, 270–71, 343, 347, 348

Bell’s Theorem, 343, 347

Benazon, Nili, 92

Berman, A. J., 142–43

biological humanism, 372–73

biological materialism, 371–73

biology, evolutionary, 28, 40, 49

Birbaumer, Niels, 188–89

Bisson, Terry, 21–23

black-body radiation problem, 261–62

blindness, 101, 126, 198, 213

Bliss, Tim, 108

Bloom, Floyd, 8

Bogen, Joseph, 25, 38, 41, 43, 44

Bohm, David, 344

Bohr, Niels, 255, 263, 272–74, 275, 280–82, 287, 343–44, 346

Born, Max, 255, 272

Bragg, William Lawrence, 54

brain, 7, 333, 367–68, 371, 373

of adolescents, 117, 127–29, 199

of adult primates, 15, 132, 139, 155, 162, 165–67, 178, 205–13, 227, 230, 235, 318, 338

of adults, 15, 110, 130–31, 132, 139, 163, 167, 172–73, 177, 199, 213–15, 223, 252, 253, 254, 337

attention and, 337, 340–41, 364

chemistry of, 90, 93–95

of children, 98–101, 110, 117, 199, 208, 234–35, 366

consciousness and, 23–24, 27, 36, 45, 257, 368

development and “wiring” of, 112–31, 208

fetal, 112–14, 117, 171

of infants, 15, 111, 114–17, 126–27, 199, 234

language and, 99–100, 118–20, 168–69

mapping of,
see
cortical mapping

mind and, 9, 20–53, 60, 224, 240, 244, 250, 257, 259–61, 277, 287–89, 290, 293–97, 337, 339, 350, 364, 365, 369, 371–74

music stored by, 97–98

OCD circuit in,
63
, 71–74, 80–81, 85, 88–91, 93,
94
, 237, 241, 244, 295, 316, 355–56,
362, 363

plasticity of,
see
neuroplasticity

quantum physics and, 44, 45, 95, 284–86, 321–22, 342, 350, 357–58

remapping of,
see
cortical remapping

reorganization of,
see
cortical reorganization

see also specific areas of brain

brain imaging, 4, 8–9, 12, 23–24, 235–36, 241, 250, 294, 331–32

see also
functional magnetic resonance imaging; magnetic resonance imaging; positron emission tomography

brain injuries, brain damage, 36, 99, 135, 158, 172, 188, 189, 213, 315

brain lock, 72, 85, 90, 241–42, 247

Brain Lock
(Schwartz), 82

brainstem, 67, 98, 125, 315

Broca, Paul, 169

Broca’s region, 169, 196

Brodmann’s areas 46/10/9, 236

Bronowski, Jacob, 274

Brown, T. Graham, 165, 178

Buckner, Randy, 197

Buddhism, 9–11, 18, 87–88, 291, 303, 308

cognitive therapy and, 293
consciousness and, 293, 321

karma in, 52, 294, 310, 321, 369, 370–71, 375

meditation in, 10–11, 17, 76–77, 78, 83, 257, 293, 301, 370

mindfulness in, 14, 17, 52, 76–77, 309

process philosophy and, 45

volition in, 293–94, 303, 308, 310, 317, 321, 370, 375

Burgess, Anthony, 290

Burkhardt, John, 173

Bush, Barbara, 155

Bush, George H. W., 365

Byl, Nancy, 219–20

cAMP (cyclic AMP), 109

Candia, Victor, 220

carbamazepine (Tegretol), 97

Carson, Ben, 99

Cartesian dualism, 31–35, 42, 49–50, 260, 287, 340, 349, 361, 364, 367, 373–74

cataracts, 123–25

caudate nucleus, 62,
63
, 67, 68,
69
, 72–74, 75, 84, 85, 88–90, 91, 93,
94
, 241, 335, 355, 356,
362
, 368

right (rCd),
89

causal closure, 51, 256–57

Celexa, 58

cerebellum,
63, 94
, 114, 301, 331, 335

cerebral cortex,
69
, 71, 114, 138, 165–67, 211, 237, 303, 338, 355, 373

cerebral hemispheres:

left, 99, 196–97, 199

right, 99, 196–97, 199

cerebral palsy, 217

Chalmers, David, 46–47, 49, 50–52, 256–58, 277, 278, 282, 290

Chamberlain, Owen, 343

chaos theory, 310

Churchland, Patricia, 38

Churchland, Paul, 38, 44, 49

cingulate gyrus,
63, 94

see also
anterior cingulate gyrus

Clark, Sharon, 181, 182, 205

Clark, Thomas, 302

classical (Newtonian) physics, 19

causation in, 260, 262

consciousness and, 283, 293

Copenhagen Interpretation and, 283–84

determinism and, 17, 259–61, 297

materialism and, 18, 30–31, 319, 350, 361

mind-matter problem in, 349–50, 366

morality and, 257–58, 374

philosophy and, 296

quantum physics vs., 16, 43–44, 48, 263–64, 276–77, 289, 293, 297

clomipramine hydrochloride (Anafranil), 58

cochlea, 102, 118, 125

cochlear implants, 125, 233

cognitive-behavioral therapy,
69, 94

brain chemistry in, 90, 93

for depression, 246–47, 320

for OCD, 14, 61, 70–71, 77–78, 92–93, 95, 130, 241, 291, 297, 316, 320,
363

for Tourette’s syndrome, 242–44

cognitive restructuring, 81

cognitive therapy, 61, 77, 87

Buddhism and, 293

for depression, 61, 245–47, 249–50

mindfulness-based, 245–50

see also
cognitive-behavioral therapy

Cohen, Donald, 240

collapse of the wave function, 269–73, 288

competing responses, 242–43

conceptualizing/doing, 248

consciousness, 19–20, 26, 48–50, 279, 293, 301

attention and, 324, 325, 364, 367, 369–70

brain and, 23–24, 27, 36, 45, 257, 368

Buddhism and, 293, 321

classical physics and, 283, 293

evolution and function of, 40–41

of intention, 304–7

materialism vs., 28, 38–39, 52, 255–58, 260

meditation and, 291

neuroscience and, 48–49, 256–57

non-reductive ontology of, 46–47

in OCD, 13, 292, 295, 296, 316–17

outside stimulus and, 337

in quantum physics, 16–17, 48, 272, 274, 276, 277, 280, 282, 283, 285–86, 288–89, 297–98, 319–20, 342–43, 374

stream of, 13, 80, 319, 342, 367, 374

volition and, 19, 52, 302, 307, 310, 313–17, 322, 360, 369, 373

consent, 359, 360

constraint-induced movement (CI) therapy, 160, 189–95, 213, 234, 235

Corbetta, Maurizio, 332

corpus callosum,
63, 94
, 193

correlated particles, 343

cortical deafness, 314

cortical mapping, 23–24, 32, 61–75, 163, 164–66, 168–69, 176, 200, 213

auditory, 204

of decision making, 65–67

of motor cortex, 178–79, 205–8, 217

in OCD, 72–75, 80–81

phonemic, 230

somatosensory, 176–77, 178, 181–82, 208, 209, 210–11, 216

tonotopic, 222

cortical remapping, 155, 160, 174, 175–200, 232, 252, 335, 353

of motor cortex, 225

somatosensory, 176–77, 179, 180, 182, 208, 214–15, 219–20, 225, 226, 230

cortical reorganization, 175–200

activity-dependent, 175

auditory, 226, 338

behaviorally based, 212–13

of motor cortex, 205–9, 221, 223, 338, 339

sensory input increase in, 204

of somatosensory cortex, 180–81, 183–86, 205, 208–12, 213–14, 223, 338

in tinnitus, 222

use-dependent, 193, 194, 204–24

see also
neuroplasticity

cortical representation, 170, 174, 193, 211, 212–13,214, 218–21, 224

of language, 227, 229, 231

Crick, Francis, 48

cross-modal functional plasticity, 198

cross-modal reassignment, 100–101

Curtis, Martha, 96–98

cyclic AMP (cAMP), 109

Damasio, Antonio, 65–66

Dampierre, Marquise de, 237–38

deafferentation, 134–50, 154–61, 188–90, 194, 196, 200, 204

deafferentation zone, 157–58, 159, 183–84

deafness, 101, 126, 314

Decade of the Brain, 1990s as, 9, 320, 365

deCharms, Rob, 337–39

decision making, brain mapping of, 65–67

Deecke, Luder, 303–4

dendrites, 103, 104,
104
, 111, 116, 121, 252

Dennett, Daniel, 35, 38, 287, 302

Denny-Brown, Derek, 138

dentate gyrus, 252

Dependent Origination, 294

depression, 24, 58, 62, 254, 299, 320, 321, 360

cognitive-behavioral therapy for, 246–47, 320

cognitive therapy for, 61, 245–47, 249–50

drug treatment for, 245, 249, 371

dysphoria in, 245–47

mindfulness and, 244–50, 360

depressive interlock, 247

Descartes, René, 31–35, 38, 299, 361, 367, 373

Desimone, Robert, 328, 331

determinism, 8, 50, 298–301, 310, 326, 375

classical physics and, 17, 259–61, 297

materialist, 19, 42, 374

in wave equation, 269

developmental neuroscience, 122

DeWitt, Bryce, 271

differential use, 204

Dirac, Paul, 272