The Making of African America (37 page)

5
Quoted in Philip D. Morgan,
Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry
(Chapel Hill NC, 1998), 67, n. 55.

6
Miller, “Central Africa in the Era of the Slave Trade” in Heywood, ed.,
Central Africans and Cultural Transformations,
46—48; Sweet,
Recreating Africa,
20-22.

7
Alexander X. Byrd, “Captives and Voyagers: Black Migrants Across the 18th Century World of Olaudah Equiano,” unpublished doctoral dissertation, Duke University, 2001; Byrd, “Eboe, Country, Nation, and Gustavus Vassa's ‘Interesting Narrative,' ”
William and Mary Quarterly
63 (2006), 123—148; David Northrup, “Igbo and Myth Igbo: Culture and Ethnicity in the Atlantic World: 1600—1850,”
Slavery and Abolition
21 (2000), 1—20; Kristin Mann, “Shifting Paradigms in the Study of the African Diaspora and of Atlantic History and Culture,”
Slavery and Abolition
22 (2001), 3—21.

8
Orlando Patterson,
Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study
(Cambridge MA, 1982), 53—54: John Thornton,
African and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World: 1400—1800
(Cambridge MA, 1998), 13; Kopytoff and Miers, “African ‘Slavery' as an Institution of Marginality” in Kopytoff and Miers, eds.,
Slavery in Africa,
3—69; Claire Robertson and Martin A. Klein, eds.,
Women and Slavery in Africa
(Madison WI, 1977).

9
Kopytoff and Miers, “African ‘Slavery' as an Institution of Marginality” in Kopytoff and Miers, eds.,
Slavery in Africa,
26-27; Lovejoy,
Transformations in Slavery,
136; Manning,
Slavery and African Life,
28, 46—47, 118, 160.

10
The distinction between societies with slaves and slave societies is elaborated in Ira Berlin,
Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America
(Cambridge MA, 1998), 9-13.

11
A. C. de C. M. Saunders, A
Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441—1555
(Cambridge UK, 1982), 60; Herbert S. Klein,
African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean
(New York, 1986), 13.

12
Philip D. Curtin,
The Rise and Fall of the Plantation Complex: Essays in Atlantic History,
2nd ed. (Cambridge UK, 1998), chaps. 1—3; B. W. Higman, “The Sugar Revolution,”
Economic History Review
53 (2000), 213-36; Alberto Vieira, “Sugar Islands: The Sugar Economy of Madeira and the Canaries, 1450—1650” in Stuart Schwartz, ed.,
Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World, 1450—1680
(Chapel Hill NC, 2004), 42—84.

13
Curtin,
Plantation Complex,
chaps. 4—6; Robin Blackburn,
The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492—1800
(London, 1997), chaps. 3—10; quoted in Morgan Godwyn,
The Negro's and Indians Advocate
(London, 1680), 101.

14
Marcus Rediker,
The Slave Ship: A Human History
(New York, 2007), chap. 3; quoted in William Bosman,
New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea, 1705: Divided into the Gold, the Slave, and the Ivory Coasts
(London, 1750), 364; Smallwood,
Saltwater Slavery,
61.

15
Joseph Miller, ”Mortality in the Atlantic Slave Trade: Statistic Evidence on Causality,“
Journal of Interdisciplinary History
2 (1981), 385-424 and Miller,
African Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730—1830
(Madison WI, 1988), 384-85; Lovejoy,
Transformations in Slavery,
63—64; Klein,
Atlantic Slave Trade,
155—57; quoted in Falconbridge, An
Account of the Slave Trade,
19 and Klein,
Atlantic Slave Trade,
156—157. Death became a central experience of the black people in the New World; see Vincent Brown,
The Reaper's Garden: Death and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery
(Cambridge MA, 2007).

16
Smallwood,
Saltwater Slavery,
chap. 2, esp. 36—43; A. W. Lawrence,
Trade Castles and Forts on West Africa
(Palo Alto CA, 1964); Falconbridge,
Account of the Slave Trade,
51—52.

17
Sylviane A. Diouf, ed.,
Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies
(Athens OH, 2003); Smallwood,
Saltwater Slavery,
chap. 2, especially 43—57; Eric Robert Taylor,
If We Must Die: Shipboard Insurrections in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade
(Baton Rouge LA, 2006). For an excellent discussion of insurrections, see Colin Palmer, ”The Slave Trade, African Slavers and the Demography of the Caribbean to 1750” in Franklin W. Knight, ed.,
General History of the Caribbean,
6 vols. (London, 1997), 3: 29—35.

18
W. Jeffrey Bolster,
Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail
(Cambridge MA, 1997), 50—51; Herbert S. Klein,
The Middle Passage: Comparative Studies in the Atlantic Slave Trade
(Princeton NJ, 1978), 58—59; Ty M. Reese, “The Drudgery of the Slave Trade: Labor at the Cape Coast Castle, 1750—1790” in Peter A. Coclanis, ed.,
The Atlantic Economy during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: Organization, Operation, Practice, and Personnel
(Columbia SC, 2005), 282—83; Stephanie E. Smallwood, “African Guardians, European Slave Ships, and the Changing Dynamics of Power in the Early Modern Atlantic,”
William and Mary Quarterly
64 (2007), 679—716; Rediker,
Slave Ship,
152, 190—91, 194, 268—67. For Denmark Vesey's duty on his owner's slave ship, see Douglas R. Egerton,
He Shall Go Out Free: The Lives of Denmark Vesey
(Lanham MD, 2004), 13.

19
Rediker,
Slave Ship,
esp. chaps. 5—8; Klein,
The Transatlantic Slave Trade,
159.

20
Klein,
The Transatlantic Slave Trade,
chap. 6; Herbert S. Klein and Stanley L. Engerman, “Long-Term Trends in African Mortality in the Transatlantic Slave Trade,”
Slavery and Abolition
18 (1997), 36—48; Herbert S. Klein, Stanley L. Engerman, Robin Haines, and Ralph Shlomowitz, “Transoceanic Mortality: The Slave Trade in Comparative Perspective,”
William and Mary Quarterly
58 (2001), 93—117; Kenneth F. Kiple and Brian T. Higgins, “Mortality Caused by Dehydration during the Middle Passage” in Joseph E. Inikori and Stanley L. Engerman, eds., The
Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe
(Durham NC 1992), 321-37.

21
Olaudah Equiano,
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself
(London, 1789), reprinted in Vincent Carretta, ed.,
The Interesting Narrative and Other Writings
(New York, 1995), 59; William D. Piersen, “White Cannibals, Black Martyrs: Fear, Depression, and Religious Faith as Causes of Suicide Among New Slaves,”
Journal of Negro History 62
(1977), 147—51; Rediker,
Slave Ship,
108, 117, 266. See Brown,
The Reaper's Garden,
136—144.

22
Rediker,
Slave Ship,
9—10, 260, 306—7; Smallwood, Saltwater Slaves, chaps. 4—6; Elizabeth Donnan, ed.,
Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America,
4 vols. (Washington DC, 1930), 1: 442 (quoted), 438; 2, 352, 359, 557, 634; William Snelgrave,
A New Account of Some Ports of Guinea and the Slave Trade
(London, 1734), 163. By the same token, the slave ship was also the place where black people distinguished themselves from whites, as they understood their captors as the enemy. The watchword of ship rebellions was “Kill the whites.” Quoted in David Eltis,
Rise of African Slavery in the Americas
(Cambridge UK, 2000), 226—27.

23
Quoted in Bosman,
New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea,
394; Snelgrave,
A New Account,
163; John Atkins,
A Voyage to Guinea, Brazil and the West Indies in His Majesty's Ships, The ‘Swallow' and ‘Weymouth'
(London, 1735), 41; Mungo Park,
Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa
(London, 1799), 353-54.

24
Rediker,
Slave Ship,
17—19, 120-21, 212—13, 289-91; quoted in John W. Blassingame, ed.,
Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies
(Baton Rouge LA, 1977), 227.

25
Colin A. Palmer, “The Middle Passage” in
Captive Passage: The Transatlantic Slave Trade and the Making of the Americas
(Newport News VA, 2002), 54; Klein and Engerman, “Long-Term Trends in African Mortality in the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” 36—48; Klein, Engerman, Haines, and Shlomowitz, “ransoceanic Mortality,” 93—117. Estimates 40 percent of the captives died in crossing the Atlantic during the sixteenth century, 15 percent during the seventeenth century, and 5 to 10 percent in later years. Many more died while waiting for transit and in the journey across Africa; the total number who were enslaved may have been as high as twenty million.

26
Klein,
The Transatlantic Slave Trade,
94—95, 130—160; Genevieve Fabre, “The Slave Ship Dance” in Maria Diedrich, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and Carl Pedersen, eds.,
Black Imagination and the Middle Passage
(New York, 1999); Palmer, “The Middle Passage,” 60—65; quoted in Equiano,
The Interesting Narrative,
56.

27
Donnan, ed.,
Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade,
1: 289—90, 2: 460; Piersen, “White Cannibals, Black Martyrs,” 155; J. M. Postma,
The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600—1815
(Cambridge UK, 1990), 241; Rediker, Slave
Ship,
17—19, 120—21; 212-14, 289-91.

28
James A. Rawley,
The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History
(New York, 1981), 296; Rediker, Slave
Ship,
128, 142—146, 151—52, 179, 203—4, 215-16, 241-44, 265-66; quoted in Donnan, ed.,
Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade,
1:463.

29
Smallwood, “African Guardians,” 679—716; Rediker,
Slave Ship,
229, 349; Eltis,
Rise of African Slavery,
226—29; Klein,
African Slavery in Latin American,
76—77; also see castle slaves in Johannes Postma and Victor Enthoven,
Riches from Atlantic Commerce: Dutch Transatlantic Trade and Shipping, 1585—1817
(Boston, 2003), 71—73; Miller,
African Way of Death,
409—10.

30
Donnan, ed.,
Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade,
2: 357, 486; Rediker,
Slave Ship,
149—50; Bernard Martin and Mark Spurrell, eds.,
The Journal of a Slave Trader (John Newton), 1750—1754
(London, 1962), 72.

31
Quoted in Eltis,
Rise of African Slavery,
229—30; Rediker,
Slave Ship,
271—76, 297—98; Smallwood,
Saltwater Slavery,
103—9, quoted on 103.

32
Quoted in Rediker,
Slave Ship,
101, 270—276; Snelgrave,
A New Account,
49.

34
Taylor,
If We Must Die;
Rediker,
Slave Ship,
259-62, 279-81; David Richardson, “Shipboard Revolts, African Authority, and the Atlantic Slave Trade,”
William and Mary Quarterly
58 (2001), 69—92; Klein,
The Transatlantic Slave Trade,
159; Michael Craton,
Testing the Chains: Resistance to Slavery in the British West Indies
(Ithaca NY, 1982), 24.

35
Quoted in Rediker,
Slave Ship,
282, 284.

36
Ira Berlin,
Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America
(Cambridge MA, 1998), pt. 1; Linda M. Heywood and John K. Thornton,
Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585—1660
(Cambridge UK, 2007).

37
Berlin,
Many Thousands
Gone, pt. 2.

38
Alan Kulikoff,
Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake 1680—1800
(Chapel Hill NC, 1986), 37—42, 65, 319—20; Kulikoff, “A ‘Prolifick' People: Black Population Growth in the Chesapeake Colonies, 1700—1790,”
Southern Studies
16 (1977), 391—96, 403—5; and Kulikoff, “The Origins of Afro-American Society in Tidewater Maryland and Virginia, 1700 to 1790,”
William and Mary Quarterly
35 (1978), 229—31; Russell R. Menard, ”The Maryland Slave Population, 1658 to 1730: A Demographic Profile of Blacks in Four Counties,
William and Mary Quarterly
32 (1975), 30—32.

39
Kulikoff,
Tobacco and Slaves,
37-42, 65, 319—24; Kulikoff, “A ‘Prolifick' People,” 391—96, 403—5; Kulikoff, “Origins of Afro-American,” 229—31; Menard, “From Servants to Slaves,”
Southern Studies
16 (1977), 366—69; Darrett B. Rutman and Anita H. Rutman,
A Place in Time: Middlesex County, Virginia, 1650—1750
(New York, 1984), 72; quoted in Marion Tinling, ed.,
The Correspondence of the Three William Byrds of Westover, Virginia, 1684—1776,
2 vols. (Charlottesville VA, 1977), 2: 487.

40
Kulikoff,
Tobacco and Slaves,
336—39, chap. 9, esp. 359—80; Kulikoff, “The Beginnings of the Afro-American Family in Maryland” in Aubrey C. Land et al., eds.,
Law, Society, and Politics in Early Maryland
(Baltimore MD, 1977), 177—96; Morgan,
Slave Counterpoint,
82.

41
Morgan,
Slave Counterpoint,
58; Peter Wood,
Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion
(New York, 1974), xiv.