The Glass Cage: Automation and Us (37 page)

21.
See, for example, Jan M. Wiener et al., “Maladaptive Bias for Extrahippocampal Navigation Strategies in Aging Humans,”
Journal of Neuroscience
33, no. 14 (2013): 6012–6017.

22.
See, for example, A. T. Du et al., “Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Entorhinal Cortex and Hippocampus in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer’s Disease,”
Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry
71 (2001): 441–447.

23.
Kyoko Konishi and Véronique D. Bohbot, “Spatial Navigational Strategies Correlate with Gray Matter in the Hippocampus of Healthy Older Adults Tested in a Virtual Maze,”
Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience
5 (2013): 1–8.

24.
Email from Véronique Bohbot to author, June 4, 2010.

25.
Quoted in Alex Hutchinson, “Global Impositioning Systems,”
Walrus
, November 2009.

26.
Kyle VanHemert, “4 Reasons Why Apple’s iBeacon Is About to Disrupt Interaction Design,”
Wired
, December 11, 2013, www.wired.com/design/2013/12/4-use-cases-for-ibeacon-the-most-exciting-tech-you-havent-heard-of/.

27.
Quoted in Fallows, “Places You’ll Go.”

28.
Damon Lavrinc, “Mercedes Is Testing Google Glass Integration, and It Actually Works,”
Wired
, August 15, 2013, wired.com/autopia/2013/08/google-glass-mercedes-benz/.

29.
William J. Mitchell, “Foreword,” in Yehuda E. Kalay,
Architecture’s New Media: Principles, Theories, and Methods of Computer-Aided Design
(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2004), xi.

30.
Anonymous, “Interviews: Renzo Piano,”
Architectural Record
, October 2001, archrecord.construction.com/people/interviews/archives/0110piano.asp.

31.
Quoted in Gavin Mortimer,
The Longest Night
(New York: Penguin, 2005), 319.

32.
Dino Marcantonio, “Architectural Quackery at Its Finest: Parametricism,”
Marcantonio Architects Blog
, May 8, 2010, blog.marcantonioarchitects.com/architectural-quackery-at-its-finest-parametricism/.

33.
Paul Goldberger, “Digital Dreams,”
New Yorker
, March 12, 2001.

34.
Patrik Schumacher, “Parametricism as Style—Parametricist Manifesto,” Patrik Schumacher’s blog, 2008, patrikschumacher.com/Texts/Parametricism%20as%20Style.htm.

35.
Anonymous, “Interviews: Renzo Piano.”

36.
Witold Rybczynski, “Think before You Build,”
Slate
, March 30, 2011, slate.com/articles/arts/architecture/2011/03/think_before_you_build.html.

37.
Quoted in Bryan Lawson,
Design in Mind
(Oxford, U.K.: Architectural Press, 1994), 66.

38.
Michael Graves, “Architecture and the Lost Art of Drawing,”
New York Times
, September 2, 2012.

39.
D. A. Schön, “Designing as Reflective Conversation with the Materials of a Design Situation,”
Knowledge-Based Systems
5, no. 1 (1992): 3–14. See also Schön’s book
The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action
(New York: Basic Books, 1983), particularly 157–159.

40.
Graves, “Architecture and the Lost Art of Drawing.” See also Masaki Suwa et al., “Macroscopic Analysis of Design Processes Based on a Scheme for Coding Designers’ Cognitive Actions,”
Design Studies
19 (1998): 455–483.

41.
Nigel Cross,
Designerly Ways of Knowing
(Basel: Birkhäuser, 2007), 58.

42.
Schön, “Designing as Reflective Conversation.”

43.
Ibid.

44.
Joachim Walther et al., “Avoiding the Potential Negative Influence of CAD Tools on the Formation of Students’ Creativity,” in
Proceedings of the 2007 AaeE Conference
, Melbourne, Australia, December 2007, ww2.cs.mu.oz.au/aaee2007/papers/paper_40.pdf.

45.
Graves, “Architecture and the Lost Art of Drawing.”

46.
Juhani Pallasmaa,
The Thinking Hand: Existential and Embodied Wisdom in Architecture
(Chichester, U.K.: Wiley, 2009), 96–97.

47.
Interview of E. J. Meade by author, July 23, 2013.

48.
Jacob Brillhart, “Drawing towards a More Creative Architecture: Mediating between the Digital and the Analog,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, Montreal, Canada, March 5, 2011.

49.
Matthew B. Crawford,
Shop Class as Soulcraft: An Inquiry into the Value of Work
(New York: Penguin, 2009), 164.

50.
Ibid., 161.

51.
John Dewey,
Essays in Experimental Logic
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1916), 13–14.

52.
Matthew D. Lieberman, “The Mind-Body Illusion,”
Psychology Today
, May 17, 2012, psychologytoday.com/blog/social-brain-social-mind/201205/the-mind-body-illusion. See also Matthew D. Lieberman, “What Makes Big Ideas Sticky?,” in Max Brockman, ed.,
What’s Next? Dispatches on the Future of Science
(New York: Vintage, 2009), 90–103.

53.
“Andy Clark: Embodied Cognition” (video), University of Edinburgh: Research in a Nutshell, undated, nutshell-videos.ed.ac.uk/andy-clark-embodied-cognition.

54.
Tim Gollisch and Markus Meister, “Eye Smarter than Scientists Believed: Neural Computations in Circuits of the Retina,”
Neuron
65 (January 28, 2010): 150–164.

55.
See Vittorio Gallese and George Lakoff, “The Brain’s Concepts: The Role of the Sensory-Motor System in Conceptual Knowledge,”
Cognitive Neuropsychology
22, no. 3/4 (2005): 455–479; and Lawrence W. Barsalou, “Grounded Cognition,”
Annual Review of Psychology
59 (2008): 617–645.

56.
“Andy Clark: Embodied Cognition.”

57.
Shaun Gallagher,
How the Body Shapes the Mind
(Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2005), 247.

58.
Andy Clark,
Natural-Born Cyborgs: Minds, Technologies, and the Future of Human Intelligence
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 4.

59.
Quoted in Fallows, “Places You’ll Go.”

Chapter Seven: AUTOMATION FOR THE PEOPLE

1.
Kevin Kelly, “Better than Human: Why Robots Will—and Must—Take Our Jobs,”
Wired
, January 2013.

2.
Jay Yarow, “Human Driver Crashes Google’s Self Driving Car,”
Business Insider
, August 5, 2011, businessinsider.com/googles-self-driving-cars-get-in-their-first-accident-2011-8.

3.
Andy Kessler, “Professors Are About to Get an Online Education,”
Wall Street Journal
, June 3, 2013.

4.
Vinod Khosla, “Do We Need Doctors or Algorithms?,” TechCrunch, January 10, 2012, techcrunch.com/2012/01/10/doctors-or-algorithms.

5.
Gerald Traufetter, “The Computer vs. the Captain: Will Increasing Automation Make Jets Less Safe?,”
Spiegel Online
, July 31, 2009, spiegel.de/international/world/the-computer-vs-the-captain-will-increasing-automation-make-jets-less-safe-a-639298.html.

6.
See Adam Fisher, “Inside Google’s Quest to Popularize Self-Driving Cars,”
Popular Science
, October 2013.

7.
Tosha B. Weeterneck et al., “Factors Contributing to an Increase in Duplicate Medication Order Errors after CPOE Implementation,”
Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association
18 (2011): 774–782.

8.
Sergey V. Buldyrev et al., “Catastrophic Cascade of Failures in Interdependent Networks,”
Nature
464 (April 15, 2010): 1025–1028. See also Alessandro Vespignani, “The Fragility of Interdependency,”
Nature
464 (April 15, 2010): 984–985.

9.
Nancy G. Leveson,
Engineering a Safer World: Systems Thinking Ap
plied to Safety
(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2011), 8–9.

10.
Lisanne Bainbridge, “Ironies of Automation,”
Automatica
19, no. 6 (1983): 775–779.

11.
For a review of research on vigilance, including the World War II studies, see D. R. Davies and R. Parasuraman,
The Psychology of Vigilance
(London: Academic Press, 1982).

12.
Bainbridge, “Ironies of Automation.”

13.
See Magdalen Galley, “Ergonomics—Where Have We Been and Where Are We Going,” undated speech, taylor.it/meg/papers/50%20Years%20of%20Ergonomics.pdf; and Nicolas Marmaras et al., “Ergonomic Design in Ancient Greece,”
Applied Ergonomics
30, no. 4 (1999): 361–368.

14.
David Meister,
The History of Human Factors and Ergonomics
(Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999), 209, 359.

15.
Leo Marx, “Does Improved Technology Mean Progress?,”
Technology Review
, January 1987.

16.
Donald A. Norman,
Things That Make Us Smart: Defending Human Attributes in the Age of the Machine
(New York: Perseus, 1993), xi.

17.
Norbert Wiener,
I Am a Mathematician
(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1956), 305.

18.
Nadine Sarter et al., “Automation Surprises,” in Gavriel Salvendy, ed.,
Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics
, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1997).

19.
Ibid.

20.
John D. Lee, “Human Factors and Ergonomics in Automation Design,” in Gavriel Salvendy, ed.,
Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics
, 3rd ed. (Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2006), 1571.

21.
For more on human-centered automation, see Charles E. Billings,
Aviation Automation: The Search for a Human-Centered Approach
(Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997); and Raja Parasuraman et al., “A Model for Types and Levels of Human Interaction with Automation,”
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics
30, no. 3 (2000): 286–297.

22.
David B. Kaber et al., “On the Design of Adaptive Automation for Complex Systems,”
International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics
5, no. 1 (2001): 37–57.

23.
Mark W. Scerbo, “Adaptive Automation,” in Raja Parasuraman and Matthew Rizzo, eds.,
Neuroergonomics: The Brain at Work
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 239–252. For more on the DARPA project, see Mark St. John et al., “Overview of the DARPA Augmented Cognition Technical Integration Experiment,”
International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction
17, no. 2 (2004): 131–149.

24.
Lee, “Human Factors and Ergonomics.”

25.
Interview of Raja Parasuraman by author, December 18, 2011.

26.
Lee, “Human Factors and Ergonomics.”

27.
Interview of Ben Tranel by author, June 13, 2013.

28.
Mark D. Gross and Ellen Yi-Luen Do, “Ambiguous Intentions: A Paper-like Interface for Creative Design,” in
Proceedings of the ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology
(New York: ACM, 1996), 183–192.

29.
Julie Dorsey et al., “The Mental Canvas: A Tool for Conceptual Architectural Design and Analysis,” in
Proceedings of the Pacific Conference on Computer Graphics and Applications
(2007), 201–210.

30.
William Langewiesche,
Fly by Wire: The Geese, the Glide, the “Miracle” on the Hudson
(New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2009), 102.

31.
Lee, “Human Factors and Ergonomics.”

32.
CBS News, “Faulty Data Misled Pilots in ’09 Air France Crash,” July 5, 2012, cbsnews.com/8301-505263_162-57466644/faulty-data-misled-pilots-in-09-air-france-crash/.

33.
Langewiesche,
Fly by Wire
, 109.

34.
Federal Aviation Administration, “NextGen Air Traffic Control/Technical Operations Human Factors (Controller Efficiency & Air Ground Integration) Research and Development Plan,” version one, April 2011.

35.
Nathaniel Popper, “Bank Gains by Putting Brakes on Traders,”
New York Times
, June 26, 2013.

36.
Thomas P. Hughes, “Technological Momentum,” in Merritt Roe Smith and Leo Marx, eds.,
Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism
(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1994), 101–113.

37.
Gordon Baxter and John Cartlidge, “Flying by the Seat of Their Pants: What Can High Frequency Trading Learn from Aviation?,” in G. Brat et al., eds.,
ATACCS-2013: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Application and Theory of Automation in Command and Control Systems
(New York: ACM, 2013), 64–73.

38.
David F. Noble,
Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984), 144–145.

39.
Ibid., 94.

40.
Quoted in Noble,
Forces of Production
, 94.

41.
Ibid., 326.

42.
Dyson made this comment in the 1981 documentary
The Day after Trinity
. Quoted in Bill Joy, “Why the Future Doesn’t Need Us,”
Wired
, April 2000.