The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown (94 page)

³⁰
G. E. Ladd,
A Theology of the New Testament
, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 143–57. The interpretation of the meaning of the title suggested by Ladd has been challenged in recent scholarship. See J. D. G. Dunn,
Jesus Remembered
, vol. 1 of Christianity in the Making (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 724–64.

³¹
See Barclay, “Jesus and Paul,” 502; A. J. Köstenberger, “Review of David Wenham,
Paul: Follower of Jesus or Founder of Christianity?
”
TrinJ
NS 16 (1995): 259–62.

³²
Barclay, “Jesus and Paul,” 502.

³³
For the significance of the Damascus road experience for Paul's theology, see S. Kim,
The Origin of Paul's Gospel
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans: 1982). For the significance of the OT for Paul and his methods of OT exegesis, see E. E. Ellis,
Paul's Use of the Old Testament
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 1981).

³⁴
For the most thorough critique of the New Perspective, see D. A. Carson, P. T. O'Brien, and M. A. Seifrid, eds.,
Justification and Variegated Nomism
, 2 vols. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001, 2004).

³⁵
See C. Brown, “Scholasticism,” in
Eerdmans' Handbook to the History of Christianity
, ed. T. Dowley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985), 278–79.

³⁶
For a brief biography of Aquinas, see R. G. Clouse, “Thomas Aquinas,” in
Eerdmans' Handbook
, 288.

³⁷
Summa Theologica
, 1a2ae.109.2.

³⁸
Summa Theologica
, 1a2ae.98.1.

³⁹
Summa Theologica
, 1a2ae.98.3.

⁴⁰
Summa Theologica
, 1a2ae.108.1.

⁴¹
For an excellent summary of the Thomist view of salvation and the Protestant reaction, see F. Thielman,
Paul and the Law: A Contextual Approach
(Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1994), 15–24.

⁴²
See Thielman,
Paul and the Law
, 18–20.

⁴³
F. Weber,
Jüdische Theologie auf Grund des Talmud und verwandter Schriften
, ed. F. Delitzsch and G. Schnedermann, 2d ed. (Leipzig: Dörffling Franke, 1987), 25.

⁴⁴
C. G. Montefiore, “Rabbinic Judaism and the Epistles of St. Paul,”
JQR
13 (1900–1901): 161–217.

⁴⁵
G. F. Moore, “Christian Writers on Judaism,”
HTR
14 (1921): 197–254.

⁴⁶
E. P. Sanders,
Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977), 59.

⁴⁷
Ibid., 75.

⁴⁸
See esp. ibid., 234.

⁴⁹
Ibid., 75.

⁵⁰
J. D. G. Dunn, “The New Perspective on Paul,”
BJRL
65 (1983): 95–122. The article is reprinted in
Jesus, Paul, and the Law: Studies in Mark and Galatians
(Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1990), 183–214.

⁵¹
R. A. Streett, “An Interview with N. T. Wright,”
CTR
2 (2005): 9. Compare N. T. Wright, “New Perspectives on Paul” (paper presented at the 10th Annual Edinburgh Dogmatics Conference, Rutherford House, Edinburgh, August 28, 2003), n. p.; online at http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_New Perspectives.htm.

⁵²
See the critique by J. Piper,
The Future of Justification: A Response to N. T. Wright
(Wheaton: Crossway, 2007).

⁵³
J. D. G. Dunn,
Romans 1–8
, WBC 38A (Dallas: Word, 1988), lxix–lxxii.

⁵⁴
J. D. G. Dunn,
The Theology of Paul the Apostle
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 356.

⁵⁵
Ibid., 364.

⁵⁶
Ibid., 370–71. Like most proponents of the New Perspective, Dunn considered Ephesians (as well as the Pastorals) to be Deutero-Pauline, that is, written by someone other than Paul.

⁵⁷
See N. T. Wright,
What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Saul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity?
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 100–11.

⁵⁸
Dunn essentially agreed, but this detail has been especially emphasized by Wright. For Dunn's agreement, see
Theology
, 365–66.

⁵⁹
For the most recent articulation of Wright's perspective, see N. T. Wright,
Justification: God's Plan and Paul's Vision
(Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2009).

⁶⁰
See B. Byrne, “Interpreting Romans Theologically in a Post-‘New Perspective’ Perspective,”
HTR
94 (2001): 227–41; and M. F. Bird, “When the Dust Finally Settles: Coming to a Post-New Perspective Perspective,”
CTR
2 (2005): 57–69.

⁶¹
See J. Neusner,
Mishnah, Midrash, Siddur
, vol. 1 of
The Study of Ancient Judaism
(n.p.: Ktav, 1981), 21–22. Neusner's cautions against the application of a harmonizing approach to the study of rabbinic literature applies equally well to the study of Second Temple literature.

⁶²
Sanders,
Paul
, 427; id., “The Covenant as a Soteriological Category and the Nature of Salvation in Palestinian and Hellenistic Judaism,” in
Jews, Greeks and Christians: Studies in Honor of W. D. Davies
, ed. R. G. Hamerton-Kelly and R. Scroggs, vol. 2 of
Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity
(Leiden: Brill, 1976), 11–44; and id.,
Judaism: Practice and Belief 63 BCE–66 CE
(London: SCM, 1992), 262–78.

⁶³
See C. L. Quarles, “The Soteriology of Rabbi Akiba and E. P. Sanders'
Paul and Palestinian Judaism
,”
NTS
42 (1996): 185–95.

⁶⁴
From Aram.
tanna
, “to repeat, learn”; masters of teaching transmitted by oral repetition.

⁶⁵
From Aram.
tosefta
, “addition, supplement”; additional teachings supplementing the Mishnah.

⁶⁶
From Aram.
amar
, “to say, comment”; commentators of Tannaitic teachings.

⁶⁷
See A. Das,
Paul, the Law, and the Covenant
(Peabody: Hendrickson, 2001), 32–33. The definitions are adapted from H. L. Strack and G. Stemberger,
Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash
, trans. M. Bockmuehl (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), 7, 168.

⁶⁸
Das,
Paul
, 32–36; S. Kim,
Paul and the New Perspective: Second Thoughts on the Origin of Paul's Thought
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002), 146–52. Cf. S. Westerholm,
Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 343.

⁶⁹
Sanders,
Paul
, 75.

⁷⁰
See C. L. Quarles, “The New Perspective and Means of Atonement in Jewish Literature of the Second Temple Period,”
CTR
2 (2005): 39–56.

⁷¹
See J. A. Fitzmyer, “Paul's Jewish Background and the Deeds of the Law,” in
According to Paul: Studies in the Theology of the Apostle
(New York: Paulist, 1993), 18-35; D. J. Moo, “‘Law,’ ‘Works of the Law,’ and Legalism in Paul,”
WTJ 45
(1983): 73-100; and T. R. Schreiner, “Works of Law in Paul,”
NovT33
(1991): 217-44.

⁷²
On Paul as a missionary, see especially A. J. Köstenberger and P. T. O'Brien,
Salvation to the Ends of the Earth: A Biblical Theology of Mission
, NSBT 11 (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2001), chap. 7. Cf. E. J. Schnabel,
Early Christian Mission
, vol. 2:
Paul and the Early Church
(Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2004), 923—1485; and R. L. Plummer,
Paul's Understanding of the Church's Mission
, Paternoster Biblical Monographs (Milton Keynes, UK: Paternoster, 2006).

⁷³
Jerome,
Commentary on the Epistle to the Philippians
, on v. 23;
De Viris Illustribus
5.

⁷⁴
See Acts 18:3. Although Paul's letters make many references to his working at a trade in order to support himself (1 Cor 4:12; 9:1—18; 2 Cor 6:5; 11:23,27; 1 Thess 2:9; 2 Thess 3:8), only Acts mentions the specific trade. Paul probably made tents from leather. He was probably skilled in making and repairing a wide range of leather and woven goods. See R. R Hock,
The Social Context of Paul's Mission
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980), 20—21; and W. Michaelis,
“skepopoios” TDNT
7:393-94.

⁷⁵
Dio Chrysostom,
Orations
34.1—23.

⁷⁶
E.g., F. F. Bruce,
Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), 37.

⁷⁷
Jerome,
Commentary on the Epistle to the Philippians
, on v. 23;
De viris illustribus
5; Photius,
Quaest. Amphil.
116.

⁷⁸
The testimony in Acts regarding Paul's Roman citizenship is affirmed by most scholars. The most serious recent challenge to Paul's citizenship has been W. Stegemann, “War der Apostel Paulus ein römischer Bürger?”
ZNW 78
(1987): 200—29. For a compelling defense of Paul's Roman citizenship, see M. Hengel,
The Pre-Christian Paul
(Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1991), 6—15.

⁷⁹
For a thorough discussion of Roman citizenship, see A. N. Sherwin-White,
The Roman Citizenship
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1973). Compare B. M. Rapske, “Citizenship, Roman,” in
Dictionary of New Testament Background
, ed. C. A. Evans and S. E. Porter (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000), 215—18.

⁸⁰
For a detailed discussion of Paul's name, see C. Hemer, “The Name of Paul,”
TynB
36 (1985): 179—83.

⁸¹
See J. McRay,
Paul: His Life and Teaching
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 2003), 44.

⁸²
The Mishnah ordinarily refers to Gamaliel I as “Gamaliel the Elder.” The person referred to as “Rabban Gamaliel” in the Mishnah was the grandson of Gamaliel the Elder. Gamaliel's counsel to the Sanhedrin is similar to the rabbinic view in
m. Avot
4:11.

⁸³
Some scholars deny that Pharisees lived in Tarsus, since faithful Pharisees needed to be near the Jerusalem temple. See B. Rapske,
The Book of Acts and Paul in Roman Custody
, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting 3 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 90-108. For the opposing view, see C. K. Barrett,
Acts 15-28
, ICC (London: T&T Clark, 1998), 1063. Some scholars suggest that “son of Pharisees” refers not to Paul's biological ancestry but identifies him as a disciple of Pharisees or the quintessential Pharisee. See Barrett,
Acts 15—28
, 1063; and B. Chilton,
Rabbi Paul: An Intellectual Biography
(New York: Doubleday, 2004), 19.

⁸⁴
See Isa 65:25; Sir 28:23; and Theodotion's rendering of Dan 6:23.

⁸⁵
J. B. Polhill,
Acts
, NAC 26 (Nashville: B&H, 1992), 501.

⁸⁶
The order in which these four epistles were written is unknown.

⁸⁷
For a thorough discussion of Paul's possible missionary work in Spain, see Schnabel,
Early Christian Mission
, 1271—83.

⁸⁸
Acts of Paul
3:3 in E. Hennecke and W. Schneemelcher,
Writings Relating to the Apostles, Apocalypses and Related Subjects
, vol. 2 of
New Testament Apocrypha
, trans, and ed. R. M. Wilson (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1964), 354.

⁸⁹
See the discussion of “The Gospel Paul Preached” in Köstenberger and O'Brien,
Salvation to the Ends of the Earth
, 173-84.

⁹⁰
J. McRay,
Paul: His Life and Teaching
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 2003), 60.

⁹¹
R. Jewett,
A Chronology of Paul's Life
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 1—2. The scholars that he discussed include H. Braun, F. Hahn, E. Haenchen, A. Suhl, C. H. Buck, G. Taylor, J. Hurd, G. Lüdemann, W. G. Kümmel, W. Marxsen, D. Guthrie, W. Michaelis, L. Goppelt, and D. Georgi.

⁹²
J. J. Gunther,
Paul: Messenger and Exile: A Study in the Chronology of His Life and Letters
(Valley Forge: Judson, 1972); J. Knox,
Chapters in a Life of Paul
(Nashville: Abingdon, 1950); G. Lüdemann,
Paul, Apostle to the Gentiles: Studies in Chronology
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984; German original 1977); G. Ogg,
The Chronology of the Life of Paul
(London: Epworth, 1968).

⁹³
A good example of this approach is L. C. A. Alexander, “Chronology of Paul,” in
Dictionary of Paul and His Letters
, ed. G. F. Hawthorne, R. P. Martin, and D. G. Reid (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1993), 115-23.

⁹⁴
J. Murphy-O'Connor,
Paul: A Critical Life
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1996), 1-4.

⁹⁵
H. W. Hoehner, “Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ. Part IV: The Day of Christ's Crucifixion,”
BSac
131 (1974): 241—64; id., “Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ. Part V: The Year of Christ's Crucifixion,”
BSac
131 (1974): 332-48.

⁹⁶
Jewett,
Chronology
, 30—33.

⁹⁷
See Introduction to Galatians below.

⁹⁸
Not only does this date fit well with the date of the Gallio Inscription, but it also comports with the Sabbath year cycle. J. Finegan noted that the year immediately following a sabbatical year was a year of greatest food scarcity, and this may explain the special concern for the poor at the Jerusalem Council as described in Gal 2:10. See J. Finegan,
Handbook of Biblical Chronology
, rev. ed. (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1998), 394.

⁹⁹
Jewett,
Chronology
, 58—61.

¹⁰⁰
Suetonius,
Claudius
25.4; Dio Cassius,
History of Rome
60.6.6; and Orosius,
Seven Books of History against the Romans
7.6.15-16.

¹⁰¹
See Dio Cassius,
History of Rome
57.14.5. For a thorough description of the inscription and its significance, see Jewett,
Chronology
, 38—40.