The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown (90 page)

Although Sanders appealed at length to the apocryphal book of
Jubilees
to confirm that covenantal nomism was the pattern of religion for first-century Judaism, even
Jubilees
frequently refers to great ledgers like that of Akiba's parable to describe the basis for final judgment. Sanders appealed to
Jub.
30:22 and 36:10 to argue that the “heavenly tablets” are the books of life and destruction rather than a ledger of deeds. Actually, the heavenly tablets have a variety of functions through
Jubilees
. In
Jub.
6:17 and 16:29–30, the tablets appear to be records of God's laws. But at least in
Jub.
39:6 the heavenly tablets appear to be ledgers of deeds. The text explains that Joseph refrained from committing adultery with Potiphar's wife because Jacob had taught the words of Abraham that those who committed adultery would receive a judgment of death in heaven before the Most High and that “the sin is written (on high) concerning him in the heavenly books always before the Lord.” Despite the evidence of
Jub.
5:13; 28:6; 30:19; 39:6, Sanders referred to two passages that refer to the Books of Life and Destruction
and
the heavenly tablets and mistakenly concluded they are the same. The book of
Jubilees
confirms that God kept a careful record of the deeds of Israelites in preparation for just eternal judgment. Several recent scholars, such as A. Das, S. Kim, and S. Westerholm, have regarded the above evidence as seriously undermining the portrait of Jewish soteriology affirmed by the New Perspective.
⁶⁸

SIDEBAR 9.1: 4QMMT, THE “WORKS OF THE LAW,”
AND THE “NEW PERSPECTIVE” ON PAUL

The piece of evidence that has become the subject of considerable scholarly discussion is a passage in one of the Dead Sea Scrolls, in a document called 4QMMT. As C. Evans noted, 4QMMT “has offered dramatic proof that the position that Paul attacked was indeed held in his time. According to 4QMMT, if the faithful observe the law properly, especially with respect to ‘the works of the law,’ about which the author(s) of this letter wrote, they ‘will rejoice in the end time,’ when they discover that their obedience ‘will be reckoned to (them) as righteousness” (4Q398 frags. 14-17 ii 7 = 4Q399 frag. 1 ii 4).”
¹

Evans rightly contended that the Qumran writers referred to Ps 106:30-31 where Phinehas is reckoned righteous because of his righteous act. Paul, of course, argued from Gen 15:6 and Abraham's faith as the source of imputed righteousness.
²
Clearly, covenantal nomism did not serve as a monolithic paradigm for all of Second Temple Judaism. J. D. G. Dunn, on behalf of those who affirm the New Perspective, responded that the “works of the law” required the covenanters to separate from the rest of Judaism, though this may represent a case of special pleading.
³

__________________________

¹
C. A. Evans, “The Old Testament in the New,” in
The Face of New Testament Studies: A Survey of Recent Research
, ed. S. McKnight and G. R. Osborne (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2004), 142–43.

²
Ibid., 143.

³
J. D. G. Dunn, “Paul's Theology,” in
Face of New Testament Studies
, 345; id., “4QMMT and Galatians,”
NT
S
43
(1997): 147–53.

Finally, Sanders argued that Second Temple Judaism was not dependent on legalistic works-righteousness for salvation because God provided means of atonement for failure to obey.
⁶⁹
But a detailed examination of Second Temple Jewish literature demonstrates that many Jews viewed legalistic works-righteousness as the means of atonement for sin.
⁷⁰
The book of Tobit shows that Jews of the Diaspora with no access to the temple substituted the so-called “pillars of Judaism”—prayer, fasting, and almsgiving—for temple sacrifice as the means of atonement (Tobit 4:9–11; 12:8–10). Likewise, the community documents of the Dead Sea Scrolls demonstrate that sectarian Jews who had temporarily abandoned the temple sought atonement for sin through personal acts of righteousness rather than temple sacrifice (1QS 3.6–10; 8.1–4; 9.5). Motifs in Sirach suggest that even a leading scribe of
Jerusalem approximately 250 years before the destruction of the temple substituted acts of righteousness for the atoning rituals of the temple (Sir 3:14, 30; 20:28; 35:1-5; 45:23). Consequently, Sanders's appeal to the means of atonement as precluding Judaism from degenerating into various forms of legalistic works-righteousness falls short of convincing. When atonement for failure to observe the law is accomplished by compensatory acts of obedience to the law, works-righteousness, at least to some degree, seems unavoidable.

Conclusion

The New Perspective correctly emphasizes the Jewish context of early Christianity and the need to study the NT documents against the background of Second Temple Jewish literature. It rightly warns of presumptive and misleading caricatures of Judaism that are not grounded in careful study of the primary documents. Representatives of the New Perspective are correct that not all, probably not even most, first-century Jews depended on legalistic works-righteousness for salvation. However, the evidence demonstrates that many did. Paul's letters do challenge Jewish exclusivism as Dunn and Wright contend, but they also clearly confront efforts to attain salvation by keeping the law. The “works of the law” on which some Jews depended for their salvation included efforts to keep all the prescriptions of the law and not just those that distinguished Jews from Gentiles.
⁷¹

THE LIFE OF PAUL

Introduction

One cannot master the content of the NT and ignore the apostle Paul. Saul of Tarsus became the outstanding missionary, theologian, and writer of the early church and is a very important figure in the NT and in the history of Christianity.
⁷²
He was the author or subject of nearly one-third of the NT and the most important interpreter of the teachings of Christ and of the significance of his life, death, and resurrection.

Early Life and Training (1-33)

Birth and Family Background
Paul was born in a Jewish family in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 22:3) probably early in the first decade of the first century. According to a tradition recorded by Jerome (c. 345—420), Paul's family had moved to Tarsus from Gischala in Galilee.
⁷³
Paul's family was of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5). His parents named him Saul in honor of the most prominent member of the tribe in Jewish history—King Saul. Paul came from a family of tent makers or leatherworkers and, according to Jewish
custom, was taught this trade by his father.
⁷⁴
Apparently, the business thrived, and Paul's family became moderately wealthy. Paul was a citizen of the city of Tarsus, “an important city” (Acts 21:39). According to one ancient writer, the monetary requirement for Tarsian citizenship was 500 drachmae, a year and a half's wages.
⁷⁵

Roman Citizenship
More importantly, Paul was born a Roman citizen. Many interpreters speculate that Paul's father or grandfather was honored with citizenship because of some special service rendered to a military proconsul.
⁷⁶
However, early Christian tradition (preserved by Jerome; see also Photius, ninth century) states that Paul's parents had been carried as prisoners of war from Gischala to Tarsus, enslaved to a Roman citizen, and then freed and granted citizenship.
⁷⁷
Regardless of how Paul's parents received their citizenship, Acts states three times that Paul possessed Roman citizenship, and this privilege was accompanied by important rights that would benefit him in his missionary labors.
⁷⁸
The Roman citizen had the right of appeal after a trial, exemption from imperial service, right to choose between a local or Roman trial, and protection from degrading forms of punishment such as scourging and crucifixion. Paul might have carried a wax tablet that functioned as a birth certificate or certificate of citizenship in order to prove his Roman citizenship. However, most people who claimed citizenship were trusted since the penalty for impersonating a Roman citizen was death.
⁷⁹

Paul's Name
Ancient Romans were formally designated by a
praenomen
(first name),
nomen
(family name), father's
praenomen
, Roman tribe, and
cognomen
(extra name like the modern middle name) in official documents. Roman citizens had to register with the government using the
tria nomina
consisting of the
praenomen, nomen gentile
, and
cognomen.
The NT refers to the apostle only informally as “Paul” or “Saul.” Paul was the apostle's cognomen; Saul was his Hebrew name. The name “Paul” was common in the Roman world (Acts 13:7) and meant “small” in Latin. Later traditions probably inferred that Paul was short from the meaning of his Latin name, but one cannot determine Paul's stature from the name since the name was given to him at his birth.
⁸⁰

SIDEBAR 9.2: WHO WAS GAMALIEL?

Due to Gamaliel's significant influence on Saul, a brief examination of the famed teacher is appropriate. The Mishnah mentions Gamaliel I frequently and expresses many of his opinions. Gamaliel is listed among 13 great rabbis whose deaths marked the decline of Judaism: “When Rabbi Gamaliel the Elder died, the glory of the Law ceased and purity and abstinence died”
(m. Sotah
9:15). The passage implies that Gamaliel was as renowned for his high moral standards as for his interpretation of the Scriptures. Gamaliel's students were known for presenting their Shekel offerings for the Terumah in such a way as to ensure that it would be used only for the designated purpose
(m. Sheq.
3:3). Another text identifies Gamaliel and his students as those who guarded the secret of the location of the ark of the covenant that was hidden in the temple
(m. Sheq.
6:1).

Several texts that describe Gamaliel's teachings are related to issues of marriage, divorce, and remarriage, suggesting that Gamaliel was particularly concerned about issues related to the family. Gamaliel relaxed the stricter law that required multiple witnesses of a man's death for the wife to remarry by requiring only one
(m. Yeb.
16:7). Gamaliel prevented a husband from canceling a certificate of divorce without the wife or messenger of the certificate being present to witness the cancellation “as a precaution for the general good.” Otherwise, the wife might remarry without realizing the divorce had been annulled
(m. Git.
4:2, 3). He also prohibited the use of pseudonyms in divorce certificates. Perhaps Gamaliel's work as a champion for the family resulted in the celebration of his “purity and abstinence” mentioned earlier. Although he was zealous for the law, Gamaliel was known to loosen strict standards that were unnecessarily burdensome. For example, Gamaliel relaxed certain legislation
(m. Rosh HaSh.
2.5).

On other issues, such as tithing, Gamaliel could be far more demanding and meticulous, as is clear from his renowned statement: “Provide yourself with a teacher and remove yourself from doubt, and tithe not overmuch by guesswork”
(m. Avot
1:16).
¹
The statement is related to the rabbinic discussion over whether one should count, measure, or weigh fruit in order to determine the correct tithe. Gamaliel viewed counting and measuring as too imprecise and only weighing as appropriate for a matter as important as the tithe.
²

__________________________

¹
In this case, “Rabban Gamaliel” clearly refers to Gamaliel I, since he is identified in the context as the father of Simeon.

²
See the references to Gamaliel in
m. Peak
2:6 and
m. Orlah
2:12.

Rabbinic Training
Acts 22:3 shows that Paul was “brought up” in Jerusalem “at the feet of Gamaliel.” Although the verb “brought up”
(anatrepho)
may refer to being raised from the time of infancy (Acts 7:21), in this context it probably means nothing more than that Paul received his rabbinic training under Gamaliel after moving to Jerusalem, probably some time in his teenage years.
⁸¹
Paul used this fact to prove that he was not one of the Diaspora Jews, those who were more influenced by Gentile culture than Jewish ways. In Jerusalem Paul was educated in the Jewish religion according to the traditions of
his ancestors (Acts 22:3). A century and a half after Paul, Rabbi Judah ben Tema taught, “At five years old [one is fit] for the Scripture, at ten years for the Mishnah, at thirteen [for the fulfilling of] the commandments, at fifteen for the Talmud, at eighteen for the bride-chamber, at twenty for pursuing a calling, at thirty for authority”
(m. Avot
5:21). Although Judaism may have changed considerably in the period between Paul and Judah, Judah's words are probably an accurate description of the regimen of training that Paul experienced.

Acts 22:3 says that Paul was trained by Rabbi Gamaliel I, the member of the Sanhedrin mentioned in Acts 5:33—39.
⁸²
Gamaliel was a leading Jewish teacher in Paul's day. Later traditions say that Gamaliel was Hillel's successor in the leadership of the rabbinic school founded by Hillel in c. 10 BC. Some suggest that Gamaliel was a member of Hillel's family, but the earliest traditions describe him as the founder of his own school. Some have argued that Paul could not have been a student of Gamaliel since his teachings (Gal 5:3) suggest that he held to the stricter interpretation of the law espoused by Shammai, Hillel's rival. Certainly Paul was more radical than Gamaliel as he is depicted in Acts 5:34—39, but students are often more radical than their teachers.

Paul quickly excelled as a Jewish rabbinical student. Paul said, “I advanced in Judaism beyond many contemporaries among my people, because I was extremely zealous for the traditions of my ancestors” (Gal 1:14). Paul described himself as “circumcised the eighth day; of the nation of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew born of Hebrews; as to the law, a Pharisee; as to zeal, persecuting the church; as to the righteousness that is in the law, blameless” (Phil 3:5—6). He also identified himself with the sect of the Pharisees, which he described as the “strictest party of our religion” (Acts 26:5). Paul's father had also been a Pharisee (Acts 23:6).
⁸³