The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (264 page)

Ascension
.

The withdrawal of
Christ
into heaven witnessed by the
apostles
forty days after his
resurrection
(Acts 1. 9).
‘Ascension’ may also refer to the ascent of the Prophet
Mu
ammad
to heaven: see
MI‘R
J
.
‘Ascension’ is then applied to many descriptions of other-world journeys, especially among
shamans
.

 
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(Gk.,
ask
sis
, ‘exercise’, ‘training’). The theological discipline concerned with the ways of reaching Christian perfection, and especially with the human activities involved: ways of overcoming temptation, cultivating the virtues, fasting, and prayer. It overlaps with, and is with difficulty precisely distinguished from, moral theology and
mystical
theology.

 
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(Gk.,
askesis
, ‘exercise’, as of an athlete). The practice of self-denial or self-control as a means of religious attainment through discipline. Asceticism occurs in all religions, since in all religions there are more important things in life than living, and to attain particular goals, or to serve others, the giving up of some things on one's own behalf may be the only way forward. Nevertheless, asceticism is somewhat suspect in Judaism (but see
BA
YA BEN JOSEPH
) and in Islam, because it seems to imply a denial of the goodness of God's creation. Even so,
awm
(fasting during the month of Ramadhan) is one of the
Five Pillars of Islam
; see also
ZUHD
.
In Hinduism, the most basic structure of ordinary life, the four stages of life (
rama
) are marked by discipline, culminating in complete renunciation; the practice of asceticism is marked
pravrajya
(going forth from home). The efficacy of self-mortification (
tapas
) is so great that even the gods engage in it. This is even more marked in Jainism, where the ideal is the one who dies his death before it actually occurs (see
SALLEKHAN
). The practice of control becomes literally manifest in the many techniques of
yoga
.
All of these were practised by Gautama in the early stages of the quest for enlightenment which culminated in his becoming the
Buddha
.
Renouncing these practices as counterproductive, the Buddha came to be critical of contemporary ascetic movements, and in several discourses he describes and criticizes their many and varied practices. Although the Buddha prohibited extreme practices, he allowed twelve optional practices (
dhutanga
) of a moderately ascetic kind but resisted the attempt to make five of them compulsory for monks; thirteen are listed in
Visuddhimagga
11.
Among Jains, the commitment to asceticism is the central dynamic of the whole system. Those far enough advanced in the emancipation of
j
va
from
karma
(see
GUNASTH
NA
) undergo initiation (
d
k
a
) and take the
Five Great Vows
(
mah
vrata
); but the laity are closely integrated, by being on the same path, and by the formality of
d
na
, gifts in support of the ascetics. The two immediate aims of the Jain ascetic counterbalance each other,
sa
yama