Smuggler Nation (73 page)

12
. Kinder, “Shutting Out the Evil,” 473.

13
. John Helmer,
Drugs and Minority Oppression
(New York: Seabury Press, 1975), 13.

14
. Brecher et al.,
Licit and Illicit Drugs
, 44.

15
. Arnold H. Taylor,
American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic, 1900–1939: A Study in International Humanitarian Reform
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1969), 27.

16
. Taylor,
American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic
, 37.

17
. Musto,
American Disease
, 39.

18
. Quoted in Musto,
American Disease
, 34.

19
. Charles Reasons, “The Politics of Drugs: An Inquiry in the Sociology of Social Problems,”
Sociological Quarterly
15, no. 3 (Summer 1974): 393.

20
. Brecher et al.,
Licit and Illicit Drugs
, 49.

21
. The actual level of opium use was highly contested. See William Butler Eldridge,
Narcotics and the Law: A Critique of the American Experiment in Narcotic Drug Control
(New York: NYU Press, 1962), 7.

22
. Eldridge,
Narcotics and the Law
, 9.

23
. Brecher et al.,
Licit and Illicit Drugs
, 49.

24
. Musto,
American Disease
, 123.

25
.
New York Times
, 18 December 1918, quoted in Rufus King,
The Drug Hang-Up
(New York: Norton, 1972), 26.

26
. Musto,
American Disease
, 190; Inciardi,
War on Drugs
, 98.

27
. U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration,
A Chronicle of Federal Drug Law Enforcement
(Washington, DC: Department of Justice, 1977), 22, 24.

28
. Physician and pharmacist lobbies were still strong enough to block sweeping new legislation in Congress. Reasons, “The Politics of Drugs,” 398.

29
. See Jerald Cloyd,
Drugs and Information Control
(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), 62.

30
. “Breakers of Narcotics Laws Outnumber Wet Convicts,”
New York Times
, 24 January 1927; John C. McWilliams, “Through the Past Darkly: The Politics and Policies of America’s Drug War,”
Journal of Policy History
3, no. 4 (1991): 364.

31
. Eric C. Schneider,
Smack: Heroin and the American City
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008),
chapter 1
.

32
. Alan A. Block and William J. Chambliss,
Organized Crime
(New York: Elsevier, 1981), 53.

33
. Kathryn Meyer and Terry Parssinen,
Webs of Smoke: Smugglers, Warlords, Spies, and the History of the International Drug Trade
(Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), 243; David T. Courtwright, “The Road to H: The Emergence of the American Heroin Complex, 1898–1956,” in
One-Hundred Years of Heroin
, ed. David Musto (Westport, CT: Auburn House, 2002).

34
. Jill Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 77.

35
. Quoted in Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
, 77.

36
. Quoted in Musto,
The American Disease
, 197.

37
. Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
, 96.

38
. Meyer and Parssinen,
Webs of Smoke
, 253, 260; Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
, 109.

39
. See Courtwright, “The Road to H,” 11; Schneider,
Smack
, 7–8.

40
. See Joseph F. Spillane, “Making a Modern Drug War: The Manufacture, Sale, and Control of Cocaine in the United States, 1880–1920,” in
Cocaine: Global Histories
, ed. Paul Gootenberg (London: Routledge, 1999), 39–41.

41
. Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
, 84.

42
. For a detailed account, see John C. McWilliams,
The Protectors: Harry J. Anslinger and the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, 1930–1962
(Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1990).

43
. Quoted in Eric Schlosser,
Reefer Madness
(New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2004), 20.

44
. Meyer and Parssinen,
Webs of Smoke
, 247.

45
. Quoted in Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
, 197.

46
. Kinder, “Shutting Out the Evil,” 479.

47
. “At that time, and for at least a decade longer, the drugs [pharmaceutical] trades saw no reason why a substance used chiefly in corn plasters, veterinary medicine, and nonintoxicating medicaments should be so severely restricted.” Musto,
American Disease
, 216.

48
. Quoted in McWilliams, “Through the Past Darkly,” 366. Also see Harry J. Anslinger and Courtney Ryley Cooper, “Marijuana: Assassin of Youth,”
American Magazine
, July 1937.

49
. Brecher et al.,
Licit and Illicit Drugs
, 69, 77.

50
. Quoted in McWilliams, “Through the Past Darkly,” 368.

51
. Quoted in King,
Drug Hang-Up
, 65.

52
. The information in this paragraph comes from Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
, 165.

53
. Douglas Valentine,
The Strength of the Wolf: The Secret History of America’s War on Drugs
(London: Verso, 2006), 10.

54
. For more details, see Rodney Campbell,
The Luciano Project: The Secret Wartime Collaboration of the Mafia and the U.S. Navy
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977); Tim Newark,
Mafia Allies: The True Story of America’s Secret Alliance with the Mob in World War II
(St. Paul, MN: Zenith, 2007),
chapter 7
.

55
. Quoted in Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
, 146.

56
. Quoted in Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
, 167.

57
. The FBN apparently maintained a secret black list that included the names of hundreds of traffickers. See Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
, 160–61.

58
. William B. McCallister, “Habitual Problems: The United States and International Drug Control,” in
Federal Drug Control: The Evolution of Policy and Practice
, ed. Jonathon Erlen and Joseph Spillane (Binghamton, NY: Pharmaceutical Products Press, 2004), 193. See also Richard M. Gibson and Wenhua Chen,
The Secret Army: Chiang Kai-Shek and the Drug Warlords of the Golden Triangle
(New York: Wiley, 2011).

59
. For an in-depth account, see Alfred W. McCoy,
The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade
, rev. ed. (Chicago: Lawrence Hill, 2003),
chapter 2
; Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
,
chapter 9
; and Cornelius Friesendorf,
U.S. Foreign Policy and the War on Drugs: Displacing the Cocaine and Heroin Industry
(London: Routledge, 2007), 42–44.

60
. Evert Clark and Nicholas Horrock,
Contrabandista!
(New York: Praeger, 1973), 111, 192–94.

61
. Musto,
American Disease
, 231.

62
. Quoted in Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
, 177.

63
. Pierre-Arnoud Chouvy,
Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 96.

64
. See Jonnes,
Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe Dreams
, 177, 186. More generally, see McCoy,
Politics of Heroin
,
chapter 2
.

65
. Kinder, “Shutting Out the Evil,” 484.

66
. Arnold S. Trebach,
The Heroin Solution
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 164.

67
. Cited in McWilliams, “Through the Past Darkly,” 371; and Musto,
American Disease
, 231.

68
. Quoted in Timothy Green,
The Smugglers
(New York: Walker, 1969), 86.

69
. Elaine Shannon,
Desperados: Latin Drug Lords, U.S. Lawmen, and the War America Can’t Win
(New York: Viking, 1988).

70
. This pricing information comes from Green,
The Smugglers
, 109.

71
. The information on heroin in this paragraph comes from Letizia Paoli, Victoria A. Greenfield, and Peter Reuter,
World Heroin Market
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).

72
. “President’s Message on Drug Control Programs,”
Congressional Quarterly Almanac
26 (1971): 94A.

73
. Quoted in Edward Jay Epstein,
Agency of Fear: Opiates and Political Power in America
, rev. ed. (New York: Verso, 1990), 178.

74
. Peter Goldberg, “Federal Government’s Response to Illicit Drugs, 1969–1978,” in
The Facts About “Drug Abuse,”
Drug Abuse Council (New York: Free Press, 1980), 57.

75
. Musto,
American Disease
, 234, 239–41.

76
. Steven Wisotsky,
Beyond the War on Drugs
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 1990), 250. On the global reach of U.S. drug enforcement, see especially Ethan Nadelmann,
Cops Across Borders: The Internationalization of U.S. Criminal Law Enforcement
(University Park: Penn State Press, 1993).

77
. “President’s Message on Drug Control Programs,” 95A.

78
. Epstein,
Agency of Fear
, 83–92; Musto,
American Disease
, 256–57.

79
. McCoy,
Politics of Heroin
.

80
. Thomas Darmondy,
Opium: Reality’s Dark Dream
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 239.

81
. “Nation: Panic over Paraquat,”
Time
, 1 May 1978.

82
. Shannon,
Desperados
, 72–73.

83
. Courtwright,
Forces of Habit
, 44.

84
. Shannon,
Desperados
, 76.

85
. Brecher et al.,
Licit and Illicit Drugs
, 302–5. On pp. 304–5 Brecher and his co-editors write: “The decade [of the 1960s] began with almost all stimulants being supplied by reputable manufacturers; their low-cost amphetamines had almost driven cocaine off the market. The withdrawal of intravenous amphetamines from the legal market opened the door for the illicit speed labs. The Drug Abuse Control Amendments of 1965 curbed the direct diversion of legal amphetamines to the black market; this opened the door for the smuggling of exported amphetamines back into the United States. By 1969, law-enforcement efforts had raised black market amphetamine prices and curbed amphetamine supplies sufficiently to open the door for renewed cocaine smuggling.”

86
. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), 4.4 million people had used cocaine within the past thirty days, at least 9.7 million within the past year, and at least 15 million at least once at some time in the past. These figures, which represent a 250–300 percent increase over the NIDA survey in 1977, were considered low by other official estimates. Wisotsky,
Beyond the War on Drugs
, 12–14.

87
. Bruce D. Johnson and John Muffler, “Sociocultural Aspects of Drug Use and Abuse in the 1990s,” in
Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Text
, ed. Joyce H. Lowinson et al. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1992), 124.

88
. Johnson and Muffler, “Sociocultural Aspects of Drug Use and Abuse in the 1990s.”

89
. See Musto,
American Disease
, 274; and Wisotsky,
Beyond the War on Drugs
, 7.

90
. Quoted in Ryan Grim,
This Is Your Country on Drugs: The Secret History of Getting High in America
(New York: Wiley, 2010), 73–74.

91
. Quoted in Grim,
This Is Your Country on Drugs
, 73.

92
. On the history and development of the Andean cocaine industry, see especially Paul Gootenberg,
Andean Cocaine: The Making of a Global Drug
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).