Our Own Devices: How Technology Remakes Humanity (45 page)

34.
Alan S. Ryan, “The Resurgence of Breastfeeding in the United States,”
Pediatrics
, vol. 99, no. 4 (April 1997), E12—E16; Marc Kaufman, “What’s in Infant Formula?”
Washington Post
, June 1, 1999.

35.
Kaufman, “Infant Formula,” 13; Marc Kaufman, “Baby Formula Fight Puts Fat
Under Fire,”
Washington Post
, June 1, 1999.

36.
Karen Goldberg Goff, “To Baby’s Health,”
Washington Times
, August 18, 2002; Isadora B. Steylin, “Infant Formula: Second Best but Good Enough,”
FDA Consumer
, vol. 30, no. 5 (June 1996), 17–20.

37.
Alan Lucas, letter,
British Medical Journal
, vol. 317, no. 7174 (August 1, 1998), 337–38; Glen E. Mott et al., “Programming of Cholesterol Metabolism
by Breast or Formula Feeding,” in
The Childhood Environment and Adult Disease
(Chichester, Eng.: John Wiley & Sons, 1991), 56–76; Golden,
Wet Nursing
, 206; Janet Raloff, “Breast Milk: A Leading Source of PCBs,”
Science News
, vol. 152, no. 22 (November 29, 1997), 344.

38.
Jill Nelson, “Mr. Mom Finally Gets It All,”
Washington Post
, September 27, 1987.

39.
On the technology and politics of contemporary
breast-feeding, see Linda M. Blum,
At the Breast: Ideologies of Breastfeeding and Motherhood in the Contemporary United States
(Boston: Beacon Books, 1999); for a new feminist interpretation, see Alison Bartlett, “Breastfeeding as Headwork: Corporeal Feminism and Meanings for Breastfeeding,”
Women’s Studies International Forum
, vol. 25, no. 3 (May—June 2002), 373–82.

40.
Terence Chea, “Martek
to Feed Market for Fortified Formula; Do Additives Make Babies Smarter? Studies Differ,”
Washington Post
, January 24, 2002; Eric Nagourney, “Vital Signs: Nutrition, Extra Fortification for Baby Formulas,”
New York Times
, January 29, 2002; Nicholas B. Kristof, “Interview with a Humanoid,”
New York Times
, July 23, 2002.

1.
William Rossi, “Back to Basics—Again and Again,”
Footwear
News
, vol. 54, no. 36 (September 7, 1998), 24; Eunice Wilson,
A History of Shoe Fashions
(London: Pitman, 1974), 36–37; Harold E. Driver and William C. Massey,
Comparative Studies of North American Indians
(Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1957) (=
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
, n.s. vol. 47, part 2); Alika Podolinsky Webber,
North American Indian and Eskimo Footwear:
A Typology and Glossary
(Toronto: Bata Shoe Museum, 1989).

2.
Phillip Nutt, electronic mail to author, August 20, 2002; David Foster Wallace, “Shipping Out,”
Harper’s
, vol. 292, no. 1748 (January 1996), 33; Brian Dibble, “Synonyms for
Zori
,”
American Speech
, vol. 54, no. 1 (Spring 1979), 79.

3.
“Put Your Best Foot Forward,”
Current Health
2, vol. 27, no. 4 (December 1997), 28–29; Todd R. Olson
and Michael R. Seidel, “The Evolutionary Basis of Some Clinical Disorders of the Human Foot: A Comparative Survey of the Living Primates,”
Foot and Ankle
, vol. 3, no. 6 (May—June 1983), 322–41; Frank R. Wilson,
The Hand
(New York: Pantheon Books, 1998), 318n2; Félix Regnault, “Le Pied Préhensile chez l’Homme,”
Bulletins et Mémoires
(Société Anthropologique de Paris), 5th ser., vol. 10 (1909),
41–42.

4.
William A. Rossi, “The Foot’s Arches: Myth vs. Fact: Do Arch Inserts Play the Best Supporting Role?”
Footwear News
, vol. 52, no. 20 (May 13, 1996), 14; Kelley Ann Hays-Gilpin, Ann Cordy Deegan, and Elizabeth Ann Morris,
Prehistoric Sandals
from Northeastern Arizona: The Earl H. Morris and Ann Axtell Morris Research
, Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona, 62 (Tucson: University
of Arizona Press, 1998), 38; Earle T. Engle and Dudley J. Morton, “Notes on Foot Disorder Among Natives of the Belgian Congo,”
Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery
, vol. 13 (April 1931), 311–18; Shanghai data from Rossi, above.

5.
“Discalced Orders,”
New Catholic Encyclopedia
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), vol. 4, 893; Friedrich Engels,
The Condition of the Working Class in England
, trans. and ed.
W. O. Henderson and W. H. Chaloner (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968), 80; Richard Keith Frazine,
The Barefoot Hiker
(Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1993), 15–16; David Holmstrom, “Hiking Shoes Are Getting the Boot,”
Christian Science Monitor
, June 9, 1997, 15.

6.
Frazine,
Barefoot Hiker
, 31–33; Liz Halloran, “Shoeless in the Forest, Hikers Discover a World of Unexpected Sensations,” reprinted
in ibid., 90–91; David Holmstrom, “Hiking Shoes,” 15.

7.
M. Douglas Baker and Randi E. Bell, “The Role of Footwear in Childhood Injuries,”
Pediatric Emergency Care
, vol. 7, no. 6 (December 1991), 353–55. Sneakers and other rough-soled shoes, worn with socks, are the best preparation against loss of footing, according to the study.

8.
Sander Gilman, “The Jewish Foot: A Foot-Note to the Jewish
Body,” in Sander Gilman,
The Jew’s Body
(New York: Routledge, 1991), 38–59; Patricia Vertinsky, “Body Matters,” in Nobert Finzsch and Dietmar Schirmer, eds.,
Identity and Intolerance: Nationalism, Racism, and Xenophobia in Germany and the United States
(Washington, D.C.: German Historical Institute, 1998), 331–57; Patricia Vertinsky: “The ‘Racial’ Body and the Anatomy of Difference: Anti-Semitism,
Physical Culture, and the Jew’s Foot,”
Sport Science Review
, vol. 4, no. 1 (January 1995), 38–59; Lynn T. Staheli, “Shoes for Children: A Review,”
Pediatrics
, vol. 88, no. 2 (August 1991), 371–75; William A. Rossi, “Dr. Scholl: From Humble Beginnings,”
Footwear News
, vol. 54, no. 27 (July 6, 1998), 14; Rossi, “Foot’s Arches,” 14.

9.
David King, “The Way We Were: World War II Presented Baseball
with Its Ultimate Challenge,”
Houston Chronicle
, July 23, 1995; Howard Seiden, “Flat Feet Don’t Automatically Mean Bad Feet,”
Montreal Gazette
, October 17, 1992; Elisabeth Rosenthal, “The Maligned Flat Foot: Some See an Advantage,”
New York Times
, November 22, 1990; David N. Cowan et al., “Foot Morphologic Characteristics and Risk of Exercise-Related Injury,”
Archives of Family Medicine
, vol.
2, no. 7 (July 1993), 773–77 (paper originally presented in 1989).

10.
E. E. Bleck, “The Shoeing of Children: Sham or Science?”
Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology
, vol. 13, no. 2 (April 1971), 188–95; Udaya Bahaskara Rao and Benjamin Joseph, “The Influence of Footwear on the Prevalence of Flat Feet,”
Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery
, vol. 74-B, no. 4 (July 1992), 525–27; Staheli, “Shoes
for Children,” 371–75.

11.
“White Man’s Burden,”
Economist
, May 7, 1983, 104; Thomas V. DiBacco, “Hookworm’s Strange History: How a Yankee’s Research Saved the South,”
Washington Post
, June 30, 1992; Adrian Gwin, “Looking Back: No Shoes Serves This Barefoot Fan,”
Charleston Daily Mail
, June 7, 1997; Asa C. Chandler,
Hookworm Disease: Its Distribution, Biology, Epidemiology, Pathology, Treatment
and Control
(New York: Macmillan, 1929), 174–75, 208–11, 380–83; John Ettling,
The Germ of Laziness
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 130; Mary A. Dempsey, “Henry Ford’s Amazonian Suburbia,”
Américas
(English edition), vol. 48, no. 2 (March—April 1996), 49. Shoes as well as bare feet can transmit lethal infections. A sixty-one-year-old English tourist, who remained carefully
shod during a brief holiday in Thailand, stepped on a
thorn while gardening on the day after his return, and thereby injected into his heel the bacillus
Burkholderia pseudomallei
, which had probably colonized his shoes and feet at his Thai resort. Released after two weeks of intravenous antibiotics, he died three months later of a ruptured abdominal aorta. See James K. Torrens et al., “A Deadly
Thorn: A Case of Imported Melioidosis,”
Lancet
, vol. 353, no. 9157 (March 20, 1999), 1016.

12.
Lam Sim-Fook and A. B. Hodgson, “Foot Forms Among the Non-Shoe[
sic
] and Shoe-Wearing Chinese Population,”
Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery
, vol. 40-A, no. 5 (October 1958), 1058–62.

13.
William C. Hayes,
The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art
, 2 vols. (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1990), vol. 2, 188; Laurie Lawlor,
Where Will This Shoe Take You?
(New York: Walker, 1996), 8–12.

14.
B. J. de Lateur et al., “Footwear and Posture: Compensatory Strategies for Heel Height,”
American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
, vol. 70, no. 5 (October 1991), 246–54, presents evidence that high-heeled shoes do not
increase the lordosis, or curvature, of the spine.

15.
Victoria Nelson,
My Time in Hawaii: A Polynesian Memoir
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989), 9–10; Steele F. Stewart, “Footgear—Its History, Uses and Abuses,”
Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research
, vol. 88 (October 1972), 119–22; K. Ashizawa et al., “Relative Foot Size and Shape to General Body Size in Javanese, Filipinas and Japanese
with Special Reference to Habitual Footwear Types,”
Annals of Human Biology
, vol. 24, no. 2 (1997), 117–29; electronic posting to H-ASIA list, June 14, 1998.

16.
Nicholas Wade, “Shoes That Walked the Earth 8,000 Years Ago,”
New York Times
, July 7, 1998; Heather Pringle, “Eight Millennia of Fashion Footwear,”
Science
, vol. 281, no. 5373 (July 3, 1998), 23–25; Jenna T. Kuttruff et al., “7500 Years
of Prehistoric Footwear from Arnold Research Cave, Missouri,”
Science
, vol. 281, no. 5373 (July 3, 1998), 72–75; Kathy Kankainen, “Sandal Styles, Materials, and Techniques,” in Kathy Kankainen, ed.,
Treading in the Past: Sandals of the Anasazi
(Salt Lake City: Utah Museum of Natural History in association with the University of Utah Press, 1995), 21–30.

17.
Louis Jacobson, “Ancient Sandal-Makers
Were a Step Ahead,”
Washington Post
, March 23, 1998; Hays-Gilpin, Deegan, and Morris,
Prehistoric Sandals
, 38–39, 121–22.

18.
Stewart, “Footgear,” 121.

19.
Jonathan Norton Leonard,
Early Japan
(New York: Time-Life Books, 1972), 110; Bernard Rudofsky,
The Kimono Mind
(London: Victor Gollancz, 1965), 49–50; Richard J. Bowring, “Geta,” in
A Hundred Things Japanese
(Tokyo: Japan Cultural Institute,
1975), 42–43;
Traditional Japanese Footwear
(Toronto: Bata Shoe Museum, 1999), n.p.; John Fee Embree,
Suye Mura: A Japanese Village
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939), 100;
We Japanese
(Fujiya Hotel, n.d.), 144; Junichi Saga,
Memories of Silk and Straw: A Self-Portrait of Small-Town Japan
, trans. Garry O. Evans (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1987), 230–32; Liza Crihfield Dalby,
Kimono: Fashioning
Culture
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 169.

20.
“Straw Ware,”
Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan
(Tokyo: Kodansha, 1983), vol. 7, 249; “Zori,” ibid., vol. 8, 379; “Waraji,” ibid., vol. 8, 223; Basil Hall Chamberlain,
Things Japanese
, 5th ed. (London: Kegan Paul, 1927), 38; Susan B. Hanley,
Everyday Things in Premodern Japan: The Hidden Legacy of Material Culture
(Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1997), 51–76; Koizumi Takeo, “Japan’s Rich Rice Culture,”
Japan Quarterly
, January 1999, 58ff.; Leonard,
Early Japan
, 112;
Traditional Japanese Footwear
, n.p.; “Big Foot: A Sandal Made of Straws Symbolising Japan’s Protection Is Dedicated to the Sensoji Temple, Tokyo [photograph],”
The Independent
(London), November 1, 1998, 2; Dalby,
Kimono
, 169.

21.
Wilson,
A History of
Shoe Fashions
, 32–33.

22.
Nelson,
Hawaii
, 9; K. Nishio, “Die Häufigkeit der Fußmykosen in Japan,”
Archiv für Klinische und Experimentelle Dermatologie
, vol. 227, no. 1 (1966), 581–83.

23.
Tadashi Kato and Showri Watanabe, “The Etiology of Hallux Valgus in Japan,”
Clinical Orthopedics and Related Research
, vol. 157 (June 1981), 78–81.

24.
Edward S. Morse,
Japanese Homes and Their Surroundings
(New York: Dover Publications, 1961), 238–39; Dalby,
Kimono
, 86–87.

25.
Alice Mabel Bacon,
Japanese Girls and Women
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1891), 15.

26.
Nancy Stedman, “Learning to Put the Best Shoe Forward,”
New York Times
, October 27, 1998; Ko Tada, “Comparative Analysis of Walking Patterns with Flip-flops Between American and Japanese Males,” M.A. thesis, Western Michigan University,
1997, 63–64; Mikiyoshi Ae and Toshiharu Yamamoto, “Soryoku wo kyoka suru” (“Strength of the Sprinter”),
Training Journal
, no. 159 (January 1993), 20–25; no. 160 (January 1993), 42–45 (I am indebted to Kiyoko Heineken of the Gest Oriental Library at Princeton University for her summary of this article, cited in the thesis of Ko Tada); Michael Cooper, ed.,
They Came to Japan: An Anthology of European
Reports on Japan, 1543–1640
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965), 210–11.

27.
Stedman, “Best Shoe”; Tada, “Walking Patterns,” 1–2, 13–15; Ae and Yamamoto, “Soryoku wo kyoka suru,” 159–60, 20–25, 42–45.

28.
Barbara F. Kawakami,
Japanese Immigrant Clothing in Hawaii, 1885–1941
(Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993), 153–61.