Our Own Devices: How Technology Remakes Humanity (44 page)

40.
Nelson,
Winning Fencing
, 111; Evangelista,
Encyclopedia of the Sword
, 447–48, citing E. D. Morton,
Martini A—Z of Fencing
(London: Queen Anne Press, 1992).

41.
Jim Gorant, “Hinge Benefits,”
Popular Mechanics
, vol. 175, no. 2 (February 1998), 52–53; “Gerrit Jan van Ingen Schenau,”
San Diego Union-Tribune
, April 7, 1999; “Geerit Jan van Ingen Schenau, Dutch Designer of Revolutionary Clap Skate,”
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
, April 13, 1998. These sources were also used in the following paragraphs.

42.
David Chung, “Slap Skates Just Link in Chain to Faster Times,”
Japan Economic Newswire
, January 15, 1998.

43.
Ibid.

44.
Amy Shipley, “‘Slapskates’ Melt Records, Anger Purists,”
Washington Post
, November 30, 1997; Vahe Gregorian, “Clap Skates Don’t Get Applause of All the Skaters,”
St. Louis Post-Dispatch
, February 9, 1998.

45.
Beverley Smith, “New Technology Creates Icy Feud in Speedskating,”
Globe and Mail
(Toronto), September 30, 1997.

46.
Thomas C. Kouros,
Par Bowling: The Challenge
(Palatine,
Ill.: Pin-Count Enterprises, 1993), 177.

47.
Weiskopf,
Perfect Game
, 162–75; Chip Zielke,
Revolutions
(Matteson, Ill.: Revolutions International, 1995), 28–32; James Brooke, “900 Reasons for Making the Bowlers’ Record Book,”
New York Times
, February 9, 1997; John Maher, “Spare Change: With High-Tech Bowling Balls, the Premium on Talent Diminishes in the Professional Bowlers,”
Austin American-Statesman
, July 29, 1995; Dick Evans, “Once
Spoiled by Success, Holman Is Starting Over,”
Portland Oregonian
, January 30, 1995; Kevin Sherrington, “Bowlers Worry About PBA Tour’s Decline,”
Seattle Times
, March 12, 1995.

48.
Dan Herbst, “Is Practice a Lost Art?”
Bowlers Journal International
, vol. 82, no. 6 (June 1995), 80, 84.

49.
Rone Tempest, “China Puts Bowling in New League,”
Los Angeles Times
, October
5, 1997; Steve James, “The Helicopter Technique: It Isn’t Funny Anymore,”
Bowling
, vol. 58, no. 3 (December 1991—January 1992), 28–32; Zakri Baharudin, “Taiwan’s Spinning Takes Them Places,”
New Straits Times
(Malaysia), March 29, 1999; Akirako Yamaguchi, “Taiwanese Bowler Rolls Gold with ‘Helicopter,’”
Daily Yomiuri
, October 6, 1994; Hildegarde Chambers, “Bowler Aims for World Title,”
Calgary
Herald
, December 10, 1998.

50.
Chris Cooper, “How Much Does a Strike Weigh?”
Bowling
, vol. 61, no. 3 (December 1994—January 1995), 34–36.

51.
James, “Helicopter Technique,” 32.

52.
David Warsh, “Toward a Better Understanding of Economic Growth,”
Boston Globe
, August 7, 1994; Paul M. Romer, “Beyond Classical and Keynesian Macro-economic Policy,”
Policy Options
, July—August 1994, posted at
http://www.stanford.edu/~promer
; A. Lund, broadcast e-mail message, October 28, 1995, “Feedback on Ratings of Usability Rules of Thumb,” cited in Aaron Marcus, “Graphical User Interfaces,” in Martin G. Helander et al., eds.,
Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction
, 2nd ed. (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1997), 438.

53.
On the colonial deployment of automatic weapons, see John Ellis,
The Social History of the Machine Gun
(London: Pimlico,
1993), 79–110.

1.
Henry Petroski,
To Engineer Is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985), and
Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995).

2.
J. Bostock, “Evolutionary Approaches to Infant Care,”
Lancet
, vol. 1, no. 1038 (1962), 1033–35; cited in Katherine A. Dettwyler and Claudia
Fishman, “Infant Feeding Practices and Growth,”
Annual Review of Anthropology
, vol. 21 (1992), 180.

3.
Huntly Collins, “Low-Tech Breast-Feeding Aid,”
Philadelphia Inquirer
, May 24, 1999; Sue Armstrong, “Choice Would Be a Fine Thing: An Increasingly Urban Lifestyle Is Encouraging Women to Abandon Breast-Feeding,”
New Scientist
, vol. 148, no. 1998 (October 7, 1995), 44ff.

4.
Valerie A. Fildes,
Breasts, Bottles and Babies
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1986), 17–36, 45–52, 399–401; Valérie Lastinger, “Re-Defining Motherhood: Breast-Feeding and the French Enlightenment,”
Women’s Studies
, vol. 25, no. 6 (1996), 603–17; Joan Sherwood, “The Milk Factor: The Ideology of Breast-feeding and Post-partum Illnesses, 1750–1850,”
Canadian Bulletin of the History of Medicine
, vol. 10 (1993),
25–47; Sally McMillen, “Mothers’ Sacred Duty: Breast-Feeding Patterns Among Middle- and Upper-Class Women in the Antebellum South,”
Journal of Southern History
, vol. 51, no. 3 (August 1985), 333–56.

5.
Fildes,
Breasts
, 262–65.

6.
Ibid., 345; Naomi Baumslag and Dia L. Michels,
Milk, Money, and Madness: The Culture and Politics of Breastfeeding
(Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey, 1995), 135–38;
M. Michelle Jarrett, “‘An Act of Flagrant Rebellion Against Nature,’”
Winterthur Portfolio
, vol. 30, no. 4 (Winter 1995), 279–88; Christina Hardyment,
Dream
Babies: Child Care from Locke to Spock
(London: Jonathan Cape, 1983), 50–51; Anita Golo, “Infant Feeders Worth Collecting,”
San Diego Union-Tribune
, June 10, 1984.

7.
Vern L. Bullough, “Bottle Feeding: An Amplification,”
Bulletin of the History
of Medicine
, vol. 55, no. 2 (Summer 1981), 257–59; Baumslag and Michels,
Milk
, 135–38; Hardyment,
Dream Babies
, 50–51; Golo, “Infant Feeders”; Gabrielle Palmer,
The Politics of Breastfeeding
(London: Pandora, 1988), 174.

8.
Dr. Darroll Erickson, telephone interview, June 9, 1999; James B. Meadow, “Time in a Bottle,”
Rocky Mountain News
, March 6, 1997; Debra Lee Baldwin, “We’ve Come a Long Way,
Baby,”
San Diego Union-Tribune
, October 18, 1989; William S. Walbridge,
American Bottles Old and New
(Toledo: n.p., 1920), 55–72; Diane Ostrander,
A Guide to American Nursing Bottles
, 2nd ed. (York, Pa.: ACIF Publications, 1992), C-VI to C-XI, 171–72.

9.
Patricia Harris and David Lyon, “The Power of Plastic,”
Boston Globe Magazine
, November 27, 1988, 22ff.; Dawn Clayton and Anne Maier, “For Babies
Who Want to Get a Grip …,”
People
, March 3, 1986, 41–42; Baumslag and Michels,
Milk
, 136.

10.
Clayton and Maier, “For Babies,” 41–42; Baumslag and Michels,
Milk
, 80–83; Derrick B. Jelliffe and E. F. Patrice Jelliffe,
Human Milk in the Modern World
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 205.

11.
Joy Melnikov and Joan M. Bedinghaus, “Management of Common Breastfeeding Problems,”
Journal of Family
Practice
, vol. 39, no. 1 (July 1994), 56ff.;
The Womanly Art of Breastfeeding
, 5th ed. (New York: Plume Books, 1991), 432; Huguette Rugeon-o’Brien et al., “Nutritive and Nonnutrivive Sucking Habits: A Review,”
Journal of Dentistry for Children
, vol. 63, no. 5 (September—October 1996), 321–27.

12.
Patricia Stuart-Macadam, “Biocultural Perspectives on Breastfeeding,” in Patricia Stuart-Macadam
and Katherine A. Dettwyler, eds.,
Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives
(New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1995), 16–17; Lisa Cloat, “Caring for Tiny Teeth: The Very Bottle That Nourishes a Child Can Destroy Teeth,”
Peoria Journal-Star
, February 10, 1999.

13.
Cited in Jelliffe and Jelliffe,
Human Milk
, 209; Dettwyler and Fishman, “Infant Feeding Practices,” 181; Max Kaufman, “What’s in Infant Formula?”
Washington Post
, June 1, 1999.

14.
Randolph M. Nesse and George C. Williams,
Why We Get Sick: The New Science of Darwinian Medicine
(New York: Times Books, 1994), 202; Fildes,
Breasts
, 278–79; Janet Golden,
A Social History of Wet Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle
(Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 132; P. J. Atkins, “Sophistication Detected: Or, the Adulteration of
the Milk Supply, 1850–1914,”
Social History
, vol. 16, no. 3 (October 1991), 317–37.

15.
T. P. Mepham, “‘Humanizing’ Milk: The Formulation of Artificial Feeds for Infants (1850–1910),”
Medical History
, vol. 37, no. 3 (July 1993), 225–49; William H. Brock,
Justus von Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper
(Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 243–45.

16.
Brock,
Justus von Liebig
, 245–49;
Palmer,
Politics of Breastfeeding
, 163–65; Carolyn Crowley Hughes, “The Man Who Invented Elsie, the Borden Cow,”
Smithsonian
, vol. 30, no. 6 (September 1999), 32–33.

17.
Palmer,
Politics of Breastfeeding
, 163–65; Rima D. Apple,
Mothers and Medicine: A Social History of Infant Feeding, 1890–1950
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 8–13.

18.
Apple,
Mothers
, 23–34; Palmer,
Politics
of Breastfeeding
, 165–66; P. J. Atkins, “White Poison? The Social Consequences of Milk Consumption, 1850–1930,”
Social
History of Medicine
, vol. 5, no. 2 (August 1992), 207–27; Golden,
Wet Nursing
, 132–33.

19.
Apple,
Mothers
, 159–60, 173–76; Jelliffe and Jelliffe,
Human Milk
, 191.

20.
Jonas Frykman and Orvar Löfgren,
Building Cultures: A Historical Anthropology of Middle-Class Life
, trans. Alan
Crozier (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987), 232; Jelliffe and Jelliffe,
Human Milk
, 188–93; Apple,
Mothers
, 152–57.

21.
Apple,
Mothers
, 169–72; Jelliffe and Jelliffe,
Human Milk
, 195–99.

22.
“Food Processing,”
Encyclopaedia Britannica
, 15th ed. (1998), vol. 19, 386; Jelliffe and Jelliffe,
Human Milk
, 211–40; Baumslag and Michels,
Milk
, 147–50.

23.
Baumslag and Michels,
Milk
, 152–45;
Palmer,
Politics of Breastfeeding
, 186— 88; Jelliffe and Jelliffe,
Human Milk
, 234, 271–91.

24.
Jelliffe and Jelliffe,
Human Milk
, 231; Baumslag and Michels,
Milk
, 154–88.

25.
“Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk,”
Pediatrics
, vol. 100, no.6 (December 1997), 1035–39; Natalie Angier,
Woman: An Intimate Geography
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), 153; Jack Newman, “How Breast Milk Protects Newborns,”
Scientific American
, vol. 273, no. 6 (December 1995), 76–79; Erickson, personal communication, June 9, 1999; Allan S. Cunningham, “Breastfeeding: Adaptive Behavior for Child Health and Longevity,” in Stuart-Macadam and Dettwyler, eds.,
Breastfeeding
, 244–45.

26.
Cunningham, “Adaptive Behavior,” 253–55; L. J. Horwood and D. M. Fergusson, “Breastfeeding and Later Cognitive and Academic Outcomes,”
Pediatrics
, vol. 101, no. 1 (January 1998), E9; A. Lucas et al., “Breast Milk and Subsequent Intelligence Quotient in Children Born Preterm,”
Lancet
, vol. 339, no. 8788 (February 1, 1992), 261–64; for recent criticism of the intelligence studies, see Shari Roan, “Analysis Questions Link Between Breast Milk, IQ,”
Los Angeles Times
, June 10, 2002.

27.
Alan Lucas, “Programming by Early Nutrition:
An Experimental Approach,”
Journal of Nutrition
, vol. 128, no. 2 (February 1998), 401ff.

28.
Cunningham, “Adaptive Behavior,” 249–55; W. H. Oddy et al., “Association Between Breast Feeding and Asthma in 6 Year Old Children,”
British Medical Journal
, vol. 319, no. 7213 (September 25, 1999), 815–19.

29.
Womanly Art of Breastfeeding
, 72–73, 161–75.

30.
Katherine A. Dettwyler, “A Time to Wean:
The Hominid Blueprint for the Natural Age of Weaning in Modern Human Populations,” in Stuart-Macadam and Dettwyler, eds.,
Breastfeeding
, 39–74; Al Podgorski and Richard A. Chapman, “Breastfeeding: Babies, Yes. But Toddlers and Even Older Kids Too?”
Chicago Sun-Times
, September 26, 1999.

31.
Jo L. Freudenheim, “Lactation History and Breast Cancer Risk,”
American Journal of Epidemiology
, vol. 148,
no. 11 (December 1, 1997), 932–38; Marc S. Micozzi, “Breast Cancer, Reproductive Biology, and Breastfeeding,” in Stuart-Macadam and Dettwyler, eds.,
Breastfeeding
, 347–84; Patricia Stuart-Macadam, “Biocultural Perspectives on Breastfeeding,” in ibid., 11; Palmer,
Politics of Breastfeeding
, 72–73; Jelliffe and Jelliffe,
Human Milk
, 115–17.

32.
Womanly Art
, 123; Sara A. Quandt, “Sociocultural Aspects
of the Lactation Process,” in Stuart-Macadam and Dettwyler, eds.,
Breastfeeding
, 127–43; Peter T. Ellison, “Breastfeeding, Fertility, and Maternal Condition,” in ibid., 305–45; Jelliffe and Jelliffe,
Human Milk
, 117–19.

33.
Womanly Art of Breastfeeding
, 161–73; Baumslag and Michels,
Milk
, 31–32, 23–26; Lastinger, “Re-Defining Motherhood,” 613; Marylynn Salmon, “The Cultural Significance of Breastfeeding
and Infant Care in Early Modern England and America,”
Journal of Social History
, vol. 28, no. 2 (Winter 1994), 247–69.