Negroes and the Gun (66 page)

40
. David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito,
Black Maverick: T. R. M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power
(2009) at 7.

41
. Wright, at 189.

42
. Nicholas J. Johnson, “Firearms and the Black Community: An Assessment of the Modern Orthodoxy,”
Connecticut Law Review
(2013) Part III.

43
. Wright, at 190.

44
. Ibid., at 191.

45
. Ibid., at 123, 140-142, 191-192.

46
. Ibid., at 124-125.

47
.
Ibid., at 116, 124, 132, 136-138, 147.

48
. Ibid., at 152; Letter from Edward M. Bacon to Walter White in the NAACP papers, May 19, 1932.

49
. Douglas A. Blackmon,
Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II
(2008) at 1-2, 69, 79, 81-82.

50
. Kevin Boyle,
Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age
(2004) at 89.

51
. Linda O. McMurry,
To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells
(1998) at 314, 316.

52
. McMurry, at 314, 316; Boyle, at 89.

53
. Lindsey Cooper, Special Rep. of
Crisis
, “The Congressional Investigation of East St. Louis,”
Crisis
, January 1918 at 115; Boyle, at 89; Elliott, “Race Riot at East St. Louis,”
Crisis
, July 1917; McMurry, at 314-316.

54
. McMurry, at 314-317.

55
.
Franklin v. State of South Carolina
, 218 U.S. 161 (1910).

56
. Kenneth W. Goings,
The NAACP Comes of Age
(1990) at 12.

57
. Goings, at 12;
Crisis
, November 1910, at 14; McMurray, at 287; Paula J. Giddings,
Ida: A Sword among Lions: Ida B. Wells and the Campaign against Lynching
(2008) at 495.

58
. Marvin Wolfgang,
Patterns in Criminal Homicide
(1958) at 84-88.

59
. Vincent P. Mikkelsen, “Fighting for Sgt. Caldwell: The NAACP Campaign against Legal Lynching after World War I,”
Journal of African American History
(2009) at 464-486; Shapiro, at 147-155.

60
. Mikkelsen, “Fighting for Sgt. Caldwell,” at 466; Vincent P. Mikkelsen, “Coming from Battle to Face a War: The Lynching of Black Soldiers in the World War One Era,” PhD dissertation, Florida State University (2007); NAACP,
Thirty Years of Lynching: 1898–1918
(1919).

61
. Mikkelsen, dissertation, at 477-78;
Crisis
, March 1920, at 233.

62
. Mikkelsen, “Fighting for Sgt. Caldwell,” at 41;
Crisis
, October 1920, at 282.

63
. Hubert H. Harrison,
Baltimore Afro-American
, June 10, 1921; Shapiro, at 159; introduction to Hubert H. Harrison Papers, 1893-1927 MS# 1411, Columbia University.

64
. 261 U.S. 86 (1923).

65
. Goings, at 15.

66
.
Moore v. Dempsey
, 261 U.S. 86 (1923).

67
. Boyle, at 120.

68
. Ibid., at 95.

69
. Ibid., at 96.

70
. John Lovell Junior, “Washington Fights,”
Crisis
, September 1939 at 276-77; Herbert Aptheker,
Volume IV: Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States
(1960) 240-244; V. R. Daily, “Washington's Minority Problem,”
Crisis
, June 1939, at 170, 171.

71
. Edmund Kersten,
A. Philip Randolph: A Life in the Vanguard
(2006) at 21.

72
.
August Meier and Elliott Rudwick,
From Plantation to Ghetto
(1976) at 225-228.

73
. Kersten, at 18.

74
. A. Philip Randolph, “Lynching: Capitalism Its Cause, Socialism Its Cure,”
Messenger
, March 1919 at 9-12; August Meier, Elliot Rudwick, and Francis L. Broderick,
Black Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century
, 2nd. ed. (1971) at 85-91.

75
. Ibid.; Randolph, at 9-12; Meier, Rudwick, and Broderick, at 85-91.

76
. Shapiro, at 171; “Lynching a Domestic Question,”
Messenger
, July 1919 at 7-8.

77
. Boyle, at 18, 118; “How to Stop Lynching,”
Messenger
, August 1919, at 2.

78
. Boyle, at 118.

79
. “The Negro Must Now Organize All over the World, 400,000,000 Strong to Administer to Our Oppressors Their Waterloo,” in Robert A. Hill, ed.,
The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers
(1983) 41, 42, 120212-20, Univ. Ca. Press.

80
. Hill,
Marcus Garvey Papers
, at 115-116. Garvey's views were still sufficiently immoderate that the movement was continuously the target of surveillance by British and American intelligence services and police. J. Edgar Hoover identified Garvey as an active radical and expressed regret that he had not yet violated any federal law that would allow his deportation. Finally, in 1927, Garvey was convicted of mail fraud. His sentence was commuted by Calvin Coolidge and he was then deported. Shapiro, at 166. See also Edward Peeks,
The Long Struggle for Black Power
(1971) at 192 (describing Garvey's meeting with Klan leaders).

81
. Theodore G. Vincent,
Black Power and the Garvey Movement
(1971) at 19, 191-92. Garvey actually met with Edward Young Clark, imperial wizard of the Klan, and commented that it “will not help us to fight it or its program” because the solution was creation of a black government in Africa.

82
. Kersten, at 21; Boyle, at 118.

CHAPTER 6: LEONIDAS

1
. Kevin Boyle,
Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age
(2004) at 208.

2
. Walter White,
A Man Called White
(1948) at 5-12.

3
. Kenneth Janken,
White: The Biography of Walter White, Mr. NAACP
(2003) at 3-27.

4
. Roy Wilkins,
Standing Fast: The Autobiography of Roy Wilkins
(1982) at 165.

5
. Boyle, at 211; Walter White,
The Fire in the Flint
(1924) at 140-141.

6
. Walter White,
Rope and Faggot
(1929) at 23-24, 29- 32.

7
. Herbert Shapiro,
White Violence and Black Response: From Reconstruction to Montgomery
(1988) at 200;
Crisis
, January 1927 at 141-42.

8
. Edward Peeks,
The Long Struggle for Black Power
(1971) at 170; Charles Flint Kellogg,
NAACP
Vol. 1 (1967) at 166.

9
. White,
Rope and Faggot
, at 78-79.

10
. White,
A Man Called White
, at 70.

11
.
Williams v. State
, 122 Miss. 151, 165-167, 179.

12
. 120 Miss. 604, 613.

13
.
Byrd v. State
, 154 Miss. 747, 754.

14
. Walter White, “‘The Eruption of Tulsa,' an NAACP Official Investigates the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921,”
Nation
, June 29, 1921, at 909–910.

15
. Walter White, “Eruption in Tulsa; Resolution and Walter White Report on Tulsa” in NAACP board minutes, June 13, 1921, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.

16
. Scott Ellsworth,
Death in a Promised Land: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921
(1982) at 48.

17
. Walter White,
Eruption of Tulsa
; Ellsworth, at 50-51.

18
. Ellsworth, at 52.

19
. Ibid., at 3-7.

20
. John Hope Franklin, foreword to Scott Ellsworth,
Death in a Promised Land: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921
(1986) at xv-xvii.

21
. Michael D'Orso,
Like Judgment Day: The True Story of the Rosewood Massacre and Its Aftermath
(1996) at 2-11.

22
. Rosewood Massacre Report, Part Three, at 5-6.

23
. Ibid., at 6.

24
. Boyle, at 200.

25
. Ibid., at 199; Emma Lou Thornbrough,
T. Thomas Fortune: Militant Journalist
(1972), at 69; James Weldon Johnson,
Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon Johnson
(1933) at 48.

26
. Paula J. Giddings,
Ida: A Sword among Lions: Ida B. Wells and the Campaign against Lynching
(2009) at 215; August Meier,
Negro Thought in America
(1963) at 79.

27
. Phyllis Vine,
One Man's Castle, Clarence Darrow in Defense of the American Dream
(2004) at 123-24.

28
. Boyle, at 73; David Levering Lewis,
Du Bois: Biography of a Race: 1868–1919
(1993) at 151-152.

29
. Boyle, at 15 23-27, 67-68, 87, 137, 162; “Posse Chases Man Believed to Be One of Four Who Threatened Colored Farmer,”
Xenia Gazette
, October 13, 1924; “Martin Gets Rest While Armed Men Guard Premises,”
Xenia Gazette
, October 15, 1924.

30
. Boyle, at 4, 8, 24.

31
. Ibid., at 119; Vine, at 59.

32
. Boyle, at 17, 24- 29, 145-146, 153-157.

33
. Ibid., at, 29-37, 99, 151-153.

34
. Ibid., at 154-155, 181, 187; “Negroes Shoot a White Youth in New Home Row,”
Detroit Free Press
, July 11, 1925; Shapiro, at 187.

35
. Boyle, at 163, 194, 205-206, 220, 224, 228, 257; Vine, at 144.

36
.
“What's Wrong In Detroit?”
Chicago Defender
, September 19, 1925; Boyle, at 203, 219, 245, 307.

37
. Boyle, at 245-246; “The Retention of Clarence Darrow,”
Washington Daily American
, October 19, 1925; “We Must Fight If We Would Survive,”
Amsterdam News
, November 18, 1925.

38
. Boyle, at 221, 247, 305.

39
. Ibid., at 220, 242; “Law for Whites and Negroes,”
New York World
, reprinted in
Chicago Defender
, October 31, 1925.

40
. Boyle, at 290, 299; Vine, at 235.

41
. Ibid., at 294.

42
. Ibid., at 305-306.

43
. Vine, at 112, 228.

44
. “Baby of Dr. Sweet Dies in Arizona,” Chicago Defender, August 28, 1926; Elaine Lataman Moon,
Untold Tales, Unsung Heroes: An Oral History of Detroit's African-American Community: 1918–1967
(1994) at 83.

45
. Moon, at 83 (italics added).

46
. “Bullet Is Fatal to Negro Doctor, Slay Case Figure,”
Detroit Free Press
, March 20, 1960; Boyle, at 346.

CHAPTER 7: FREEDOM FIGHT

1
. Roy Wilkins, “Two against 5,000,”
Crisis
, June 1936 at 169-170 reprinted in Herbert Aptheker, 4
Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States
(1974) at 240-244.

2
. Wilkins, “Two against 5,000,” at 169-170.

3
. Horace Mann Bond and Julia Bond,
The Star Creek Papers
(1997) at 123-124; Lance Hill,
The Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement
(2004) at 129.

4
. Herbert Shapiro,
White Violence and Black Response: From Reconstruction to Montgomery
(1988) at 226-228, 306-307; Roi Ottley,
“New World A-Coming”: Inside Black America
(1969) at 312-314.

5
. Roy Wilkins,
Standing Fast: The Autobiography of Roy Wilkins
(1982) at 187.

6
. “People's Voice,”
Crisis
, March 9, 1946; Editorial,
Crisis
, April 1946, at 105. Wilkins,
Standing Fast
, at 188.

7
. Harry Raymond,
Daily Worker
, November 20, 1946; Wilkins,
Standing Fast
, at 187-188. The episode also fostered alliances with progressives. The event prompted the formation of a National Committee for Justice in Columbia, Tennessee, organized by Eleanor Roosevelt and a variety of notable supporters.

8
. “Dr. Howard's Safari Room,”
Ebony
, October 1969, at 133, 138.

9
. David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito,
Black Maverick: T. R. M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power
(2009) at 13, 45-46. David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, “Blacks, Gun Cultures, and Gun Control: T. R. M. Howard, Armed Self-Defense, and
the Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi,”
Journal of Firearms and Public Policy
(September 2005).

10
. Beito,
Black Maverick
, at xii, 19; “Alabamans Kill Two More Negroes,”
New York Times
, July 7, 1930; T. R. M. Howard, “The Negro in the Light of History,”
California Eagle
, September 8, 1933.

11
. Beito,
Black Maverick
, at 103.

12
. “Head of Greenville South Carolina NAACP Is Arrested,”
Crisis
, January 1940, at 20.

13
. Beito,
Black Maverick
, at 67-68, 136; “An Enemy of His Race,”
Jackson Daily News
, October 15, 1955, at 6; Sullens, “Low Down on the Higher Ups,”
Jackson Daily News
; “Howard's Poison Tongue,”
Jackson Daily News
, October 25, 1955, at 8.

14
. Beito,
Black Maverick
, at 108-109, xiii.

15
. Akinyele Omowale Umoja,
We Will Shoot Back: Armed Resistance in the Mississippi Freedom Movement
(2013) at 36.

16
. Beito,
Black Maverick
, at 138.

17
. Rosa Parks and Jim Haskins,
Rosa Parks, My Story
(1992) at 30-33, 67.

18
. Parks, at 66- 67.

19
. Ibid., at 161.

20
. Constance Baker Motley,
Equal Justice under Law: An Autobiography
(1998) at 121-23.