Negroes and the Gun (64 page)

52
. Ofari, at 38-39;
Liberator
, December 3, 1843.

53
. Forbes, at 134;
Liberator
, September 26, 1851.

54
. Jermaine W. Loguen,
The Reverend J. W. Loguen as a Slave and as a Free Man
(1968) at 393-394.

55
. Forbes, at 109-110.

56
. Ibid., at 111, 119, 123; William Parker, “The Freedman's Story,”
Atlantic Monthly
, February 17, 1866, at 281.

57
. Forbes, at 124, 129;
Liberator
, November 1, 1850.

58
. William J. Simmons, Henry McNeal Turner,
Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising
(1887) at 1011.

59
. Forbes, at 127.

60
. McFeely,
Frederick Douglass
, at 196-197.

61
. Ofari, at 44, 61;
Frederick Douglass Paper
, August 20, 1852; “Impartial Citizen,”
Liberator
, October 11, 1850.

62
. Forbes, at 120-121, 126.

63
. Parker's account,
The Freedman's Story
, was published in 1866 in the
Atlantic Monthly
. Dispute about whether this is entirely Parker's work stems from doubts about when and how well he learned to read and write. The work also reflects a level of bravado that cautions skepticism.

64
. Forbes, at 296.

65
. Jonathan Katz,
Resistance at Christiana: The Fugitive Slave Rebellion, Christiana, Pennsylvania, September 11, 1851
(1974) at 232; Forbes, at 296; Harrold, at 153-154.

66
. Johathan Katz, at 234-236; Forbes, at 143-144.

67
. Forbes, at 144.

68
. Ibid., at 145.

69
. Ibid.

70
. Ofari, at 45;
Liberator
, March 12, 1858.

71
. Frederick Douglass,
Life and Times of Frederick Douglass Written by Himself
(1892) at 281-282; Johathan Katz, at 261.

CHAPTER 3: PROMISE AND BREACH

1
. Martin B. Pasternak, “Rise Now and Fly to Arms: The Life of Henry Highland Garnet,” PhD dissertation Univ. Mass. (1981) at xi.

2
. Joel Schor,
Henry Hyland Garnet: A Voice of Black Radicalism in the Nineteenth Century
(1977) at 12.

3
. Ibid., at 4-5, 15.

4
. Ibid.

5
. Barnet Schecter,
The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America
(2005) at 99, 301.

6
. Joseph Glatthaar,
Forged in Battle: The Civil War Alliance of Black Soldiers and White Officers
(1990) at 122, 129-130, 135.

7
. Ibid., at 153, 161.

8
. David S. Cecelski,
The Fire of Freedom: Abraham Galloway and the Slaves' Civil War
(2012) at 48; Adam Goodheart,
1861: The Civil War Awakening
(2011); Adam Goodheart, “To Have a Revolver,”
Opinionator
(blog), Opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com.

9
. Cecelski, at 75.

10
. Linda O. McMurry,
To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells
(Oxford 1998) at 5-8.

11
. Cecelski, at 64-66, 75, 78, 119.

12
. Christopher Waldrep,
Roots of Disorder: Race and Criminal Justice in the American South, 1817–80
(1998) at 85.

13
. Cecelski, at 62, 76, 80-82, 92, 96, 118-119.

14
. Glatthaar, at 157-158. Spelling, capitalization, and spacing in this letter have been reproduced to reflect the original.

15
. Leslie M. Harris,
In the Shadow of Slavery: African Americans in New York City, 1626–1863
(2003); Cecelski, at 71.

16
. Schecter, at 107, 205, 289.

17
. August Meier and Elliot Rudwick,
From Plantation to Ghetto
(1970) at 132.

18
. Garnet apparently decided not to engage the New York rioters, on the rationale that he would best serve the community by surviving to care for the injured survivors. Schecter, at 154; Cecelski, at 140.

19
. Waldrep,
Roots of Disorder
, at 93.

20
. Richard M. Reid,
Freedom for Themselves
(2008) at 255; Stephen Hahn,
A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration
(2003) at 133.

21
. Reid, at 258, 284; Roberta Alexander,
North Carolina Faces the Freedmen
(1985) at 130-133;
State v. Joiner
(1850).

22
. William McKee Evans,
Ballots and Fence Rails: Reconstruction on the Lower Cape Fear
(1995) at 23.

23
.
Evans, at 64.

24
. Reid, at 273-274.

25
. Cecelski, at 182-183.

26
. Waldrep,
Roots of Disorder
, at 94.

27
. Leon F. Litwack,
Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery
(1979) at 269.

28
. Ibid., at 208.

29
. Ibid. at 102, 114, 274, 428, 439.

30
. Stephen P. Halbrook,
Freedmen, the Fourteenth Amendment, and the Right to Bear Arms, 1866–1876
(1998) at 2, 12.

31
. Nicholas Johnson, David Kopel, George Mocsary, and Michael O'Shea,
Firearms Law and the Second Amendment: Regulation, Rights, and Policy
(2012) at 290-292.

32
. Clayton Cramer, Nicholas Johnson, and George Mocsary, “This Right Is Not Allowed by Governments That Are Afraid of the People: The Public Meaning of the Second Amendment When the Fourteenth Amendment Was Ratified,” 17
George Mason Law Review
(2010) at 854; Edward McPhearson,
The Political History of the United States of America during the Period of Reconstruction
(1875) at 118.

33
. Halbrook, at 2, 5, 27.

34
. Hahn, at 267.

35
. Johnson et al., “Public Meaning,” at 854; “Right To Bear Arms,”
Christian Recorder
(Philadelphia, PA), February 24, 1866, at 1-2.

36
. Johnson et al., “Public Meaning,” at 858; Letter to the Editor,
Loyal Georgian (Augusta
), February 3, 1866, at 3.

37
. Johnson et al., “Public Meaning,” at 856; 2
Proceedings of the Black State Conventions, 1840 through 1865
, at 302 (Foner and Walker edition 1980).

38
. Johnson et al., “Public Meaning,” at 858; “Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction,” 39th Cong. 1st Sess. 219 (1866);
Cong. Globe
, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 371 (1866).

39
. Johnson et al., “Public Meaning,” at 856-859; “Joint Committee on Reconstruction,” 39th Cong., “Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction,” 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 140, 219 (1866).

40
. Halbrook, at 110-111;
Cong. Globe
, 40th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1996 (March 19, 1868); House Executive Document 329, 40th Cong., 2nd Sess. (1868).

41
. Johnson et al., “Public Meaning,” at 859;
Cong. Globe
, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 1033-34 (1866).

42
. Johnson et al., “Public Meaning,” at 860-861;
Cong. Globe
, 39th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1848 (1868).

43
. Kenneth W. Howell,
Still the Arena of Civil War: Violence and Turmoil in Reconstruction Texas, 1865–1874
(2012) at 296.

44
. Halbrook, at 97; Donald G. Nieman, “African-American Communities, Politics, and Justice: Washington County Texas, 1865–1890,” in Christopher Waldrep and Donald Nieman,
Local Matters: Race Crime and Justice in the 19th Century South
(2011) at 204, 205.

45
.
George C. Wright,
Racial Violence in Kentucky 1865–1940: Lynchings, Mob Rule and “Legal Lynchings”
(1990) at 46.

46
. Elijah Marrs,
Life and History of the Rev. Elijah P Marrs
(1885) at 74-75.

47
. Ibid. at 78, 87, 89-90.

48
. Halbrook, at 16; “Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, HR,” Report number 30, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 110, 112, 658.

49
. Halbrook, at 18, 22, 34, 183.

50
. Waldrep,
Roots of Disorder
, at 10, 94, 123, 140-141.

51
. Hahn, at 80.

52
. Waldrep,
Roots of Disorder
, at 123, 137.

53
. Johnson et al., “Public Meaning,” at 853; Myrta Lockett Avary,
Dixie after the War: An Exposition of Social Conditions Existing in the South, during the 12 Years Succeeding the Fall of Richmond
(1906) at 263-78; Dan Carter,
When the War Was Over
(1985) at 197.

54
. Reid, at 310-311.

55
. Halbook, at 77, 78; “President Johnson Asks Advice in Colored Militia Case,”
Press
, Philadelphia, PA, November 8, 1867, at 1; “Concerning the Disbandment of the Freedman's Military Organizations,”
Press
, Philadelphia, PA, November 7, 1867, at 1.

56
. Reid, at 310-311; Evans, at 98-102.

57
. Hahn, at 223.

58
. Ibid., at 174-177, 181, 186, 274-275, 281.

59
. Michael W. Fitzgerald, “Extralegal Violence and the Planter Class: The Ku Klux Klan in the Alabama Black Belt during Reconstruction,” in
Christopher Waldrep and Donald Nieman,
Local Matters: Race Crime and Justice in the 19th Century South
(2011) at 156-169.

60
. Hahn, at, 90, 289-292.

61
. Otis A. Singletary,
Negro Militias and Reconstruction
(1984) at 8-13;
Cong. Globe
, 39th Cong., 2nd Sess. at 217.

62
. Singletary, at 8-13.

63
. Evans, at 71, 99; Singletary, at 8-13.

64
. Evans, at 80-81, 84-85, 101-102.

65
. Cecelski, at 202, 204.

66
. Halbrook, at 121; House of Representatives Report Number 22, February 1, 1871, at 219, 222.

67
. Halbrook, at 126-128, 146.

68
. Donald G. Nieman, “African-American Communities, Politics, and Justice: Washington County Texas, 1865–1890,” in Christopher Waldrep and Donald Nieman,
Local Matters: Race Crime and Justice in the 19th Century South
(2011) at 212.

69
. Herbert Shapiro,
White Violence and Black Response
(1988) at 6-7, 12-13, 16, 21.

70
. Singletary, at 13, 50, 54-55, 60, 65, 82-99.

71
. Christopher Waldrep, “Black Political Leadership, Warren County Mississippi,” in Christopher Waldrep and Donald Nieman,
Local Matters: Race Crime and Justice in the 19th Century South
(2011) at 212, 237, 239-45.

72
. Hahn, at 299-305.

73
. Ibid., at 306; Lou Falkner Williams, “Federal Enforcement of Black Rights in the Post Redemption South: The Ellenton Riot Case,” in Waldrep and Nieman,
Local Matters: Race Crime and Justice in the 19th Century South
(2011) at 176.

74
. Hahn, at 306-310.

75
. Rayford W. Logan,
The Betrayal of the Negro: From Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson
(Da Capo Press 1997) at 91; Cong. Rec., 56th Cong. 2242-2245; 2nd Sess. 557, 647, 657.

76
. Halbrook, at 137, 142-143.

77
. Ibid., at 143.

78
. Charles Lane,
The Day Freedom Died: The Colfax Massacre, the Supreme Court, and the Betrayal of Reconstruction
(2008) at 35-36, 54, 72-75.

79
. Ibid., at 75-80.

80
. Ibid., at 93, 97.

81
. Ibid., at 9-11, 106.

82
. Halbrook, at 166; “The Grant Parish Prisoners,”
New Orleans Republican
, June 21, 1874, at 1, 4.

83
. Shawn Leigh Alexander,
An Army of Lions: The Civil Rights Struggle before the NAACP
(2012) at 3-4.

CHAPTER 4: NADIR

1
. Linda O. McMurry,
To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells
(1998) at 19-20;
Memphis Argus
, August 24, 1865.

2
. McMurry, at 26-30, 128-133.

3
. David Levering Lewis,
W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race
(1993) at 67.

4
. McMurry, at 137- 139, 143-145; Lewis, at 67.

5
. Paula Giddings,
Ida: A Sword among Lions
(2008) at 214; McMurry, at 147-148.

6
. Ida B. Wells Barnett,
On Lynchings
(2002) at 110-111; McMurry, at 158-159.

7
. Ida B. Wells,
Southern Horrors
, in
Selected Works of Ida B. Wells-Barnett
(1991), at 42; McMurry, at 161, 164.

8
. Giddings, at 74; McMurry, at 128-129.

9
. McMurry, at 129, 155.

10
. R. L. Wilson,
The Winchester: An American Legend
(1991) at 11.

11
. Wright, at 169-170.

12
. Margaret Vandiver,
Lethal Punishment: Lynchings and Legal Executions in the South
(2006) at 179.

13
.
McMillen, at 226.

14
. W. F. Brundage, “The Darien Insurrection of 1899: Black Protest during Nadir of Race Relations,” 74
Georgia Historical Quarterly
234-253 (1990).

15
. Wright, at 170-171.

16
. Shawn Leigh Alexander,
Army of Lions: The Civil Rights Struggle before the NAACP
(2011) at 2.

17
. Gerald H. Gaither,
Blacks and the Populist Movement: Ballots and Bigotry in the New South
(2005) at x-xi.

18
. Joseph Gerteis,
Class and the Color Line: Interracial Class Coalition in the Knights of Labor and the Populist Movement
(2007).

19
. Hahn, at 418; William Loren Rogers, “Negro Knights of Labor in Arkansas: A Case Study of the Miscellaneous Strike” 10
Labor History
498-505 (1969).