Muslim Fortresses in the Levant: Between Crusaders and Mongols (80 page)

Was there a government office that was responsible for the construction of fortresses?

In reading the descriptions referring to the conquest and rebuilding of fortresses, it becomes clear that the initial and final decision whether to rebuild a fortress or leave it in ruins was made by the sultan himself. There are few exceptions to this rule. Once the decision was taken, the sultan often left the site and nominated an amir to supervise the reconstruction work. In some cases this amir became the
nā’ib
of the
. But on a few occasions he was there only to oversee the building. One of the most interesting figures to play a significant part in the rebuilding and organization of fortresses was
al-Dīn Aybak al-Afram (d.1295), who was appointed
amir jāndār
by Baybars.
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He continued to hold this post throughout the reign of Qalāwūn and most of that of al-Ashraf Khalīl, who eventually put an end to al-Afram’s long career.
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During the Ayyubid and early Mamluk periods this post of
amir jāndār
was considered one of the most important offices in the Sultanate. It was given only to an amir of a hundred or an
(an amir of forty). Under the Ayyubids the officer who held this post was not involved in building projects, military or civilian. He officially commanded the doorkeepers and esquires; he was the chief of the royal guards and was in charge of the
zaradkhāna
(arsenal and prison). He was also one of the inkwell carriers.
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According to Ayalon the post declined in importance during the Mamluk period.
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Irwin presents a different picture, according to which the official duty of the
amir jāndār
was to guard the Sultan’s tent. But “the formal description set down in chancery manuals gives a misleading impression of the real function and importance of the emir’s responsibilities. Aybak al-Afram’s responsibility for guarding the sultan was purely nominal. Until his death in 1295, he acted as master of public works and as senior military engineer.”
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An office of this kind was foreign to the Ayyubids and probably also to the Franks. Crusader fortifications must have been designed and built under the supervision of various persons, for the simple reason that fortresses in the Levant were owned by several different bodies (the Military Orders, the king and the nobility). The situation in the Ayyubid principalities was no doubt very similar; although certain amirs were constantly employed by the sultan to carry out public works, and some of them supervised the building of more than one fortress.
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In the early decades of the Mamluk sultanate the office developed and changed considerably. The
amir jāndār
may have been one of the high-ranking officials within the Mamluk court specially entrusted to oversee building projects; this would include fortresses that the Sultan had decided to restore. He served as an adviser on military architecture and was often sent out to supervise work on the site. Aybak al-Afram was also responsible for the transportation and operation of siege machines. Irwin presents him as a military engineer though the meaning of the word
muhandis
and the status of the holders of such titles is rather obscure. Beyond the field of military architecture, he also supervised large irrigation projects.

Aybak al-Afram participated in the rebuilding of several fortresses. When the amir
al-Dīn al-Kāfirī was appointed by Baybars as the commander of
al-Akrād (Crac des Chevaliers), Aybak al-Afram and
al-Dīn Aybak al-Shaykh were put in charge of the restoration work.
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The same pair saw to the reconstruction of
al-Qurayn (Montfort).
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During the siege of Arsūf Aybak al-Afram cut the logs and supervised the building and operation of the siege machines. When the siege ended successfully he was highly commended by the sultan for his diligence.
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After the siege of Caesarea he received a robe of honor for his work and effort in the operation of the siege machines.
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During the siege of Safad he was sent to help bring the siege machines from Jacob’s Ford.
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When al-Ashraf Khalīl was preparing to besiege Acre, Aybak al-Afram was sent to Damascus to build siege machines and organize their transfer to Acre.
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As a senior adviser Aybak al-Afram must have felt sufficiently experienced and confident to disagree with al-Ashraf Khalīl, who wished to demolish Shawbak (1293). What led to the sultan’s decision was the strength of the local Bedouin tribe, which gained control of the fortress. The destruction was to be executed by Aybak al-Afram. Aybak al-Afram thought the fortress was an important stronghold and should be kept and maintained. This was to be his last act as
amir jāndār
. The sultan was angreed by his objection and had Aybak al-Afram severely punished; he was thrown into jail and his property was confiscated.
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He was released during the early reign of
, after the murder of al-Ashraf Khalīl, and reestablished his status and position. He died two years later, in 1295. Aybak al-Afram regained the respect of the grandees of the court, as we are told that the sultan himself and many high-ranking officials attended his funeral.
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