Massacre (51 page)

65.
Rials,
Nouvelle histoire
, p. 262.

66.
Godelier (Colonel), ‘La guerre de 1870 et la Commune: journal d’un officier d’état-major’,
Nouvelle revue rétrospective
17 (July–December 1902), pp. 18–20.

67.
Leighton,
Paris Under the Commune
, p. 85; Rials,
Nouvelle histoire
, pp. 262–3.

68.
Jean-Pierre Béneytou,
Vinoy: Général du Second Empire
(2003), p. 182; Charles Prolès,
G. Flourens
(1898), p. 89; Tombs,
The War Aginst Paris
, pp. 85–6; Edwards,
The Paris Commune
, pp. 199–200.

69.
Sutter-Laumann,
Histoire
, pp. 243–64. 8J conseil de guerre 3 dossier 571, Gustave Cluseret, copies of dispatches.

70.
Sutter-Laumann,
Histoire
, pp. 264–73.

71.
Edwards, ed.,
The Communards
, pp. 142–3.

3 Masters of Their Own Lives

1.
Ernest A. Vizetelly,
My Adventures in the Commune
(n.p., 2009 [1914]), pp. 95, 136.

2.
Louis Barron,
Sous la drapeau rouge
(1889), pp. 112–16; Laure Godineau,
La Commune de Paris par ceux qui l’ont vécue
(2012), pp. 112–14.

3.
Albert Boime,
Art and the French Commune: Imagining Paris after War and Revolution
(Princeton, NJ, 1995), p. 17; Kathleen Jones and Françoise Vergès, ‘“Aux citoyennes!”: Women, Politics, and the Paris Commune of 1871’,
History of European Ideas
13 (1991), p. 725. Some historians have perhaps overemphasised festive aspects of daily life during the Commune. See Robert Tombs,
The Paris Commune 1871
(New York, 1999), pp. 105–7.

4.
John Leighton,
Paris Under the Commune
(London, 1871), p. 128; Stéphane Rials,
Nouvelle histoire de Paris de Trochu à Thiers 1870–1873
(1985), p. 403; Henri Dubief,
‘Défense de Gustave Courbet par lui-même’,
L’Actualité de l’Histoire
, 30 (January–March 1960), p. 32.

5.
Kristin Ross,
The Emergence of the Social Space: Rimbaud and the Paris Commune
(Minneapolis, 1988), pp. 136–7; Janine Bouissounouse and Louis de Villefosse, ‘La presse parisienne pendant la Commune’,
Europe
(April–May 1951), p. 50; Maxime Jourdan,
Le cri du peuple
(2005), pp. 17, 123; Firmin Maillard,
Histoire des journaux publiés à Paris pendant le siege et sous la Commune
(1871), pp. 195–212.

6.
Marcel Cerf,
Les ‘Cahiers rouges’ de Maxime Vuillaume
(1988), pp. 2–9; Rougerie,
La Commune de 1871
, pp. 96–8; Élie Reclus,
La Commune de Paris au jour le jour
(2011), p. 225. In late April
Père Duchêne
organised an undisciplined battalion of paid
francs-tireurs
known as the ‘Enfants du Père Duchêsne’, which consisted of seventy men, dressed in grey trousers, a red flannel shirt, a jacket and the National Guard
képi
.

7.
Reclus,
La Commune de Paris
, pp. 243–5; Elihu Benjamin Washburne,
Franco-German War and Insurrection of the Commune: Correspondence of E.B. Washburne
(Washington, DC, 1878), 19 May; Vizetelly,
My Adventures
, p. 135.

8.
John Milner,
Art, War, and Revolution in France, 1870–71
(New Haven, CT, 2000), p. 140; Martin Phillip Johnson,
The Paradise of Association: Political Culture and Popular Organisations in the Paris Commune of 1871
(Ann Arbor, MI, 1996), p. v.

9.
Maurice Choury,
Bonjour Monsieur Courbet!
(1969), p. 96.

10.
Barron,
Sous la drapeau rouge
, pp. 5–8.

11.
APP, Ba 1020, dossier Courbet; Gonzalo J. Sánchez,
Organizing Independence: The Artists’ Federation of the Paris Commune and Its Legacy, 1871–1889
(Lincoln, NE, 1997), pp. 57, 65.

12.
Choury,
Bonjour Monsieur Courbet!
, pp. 91–4; Sánchez,
Organising Independence
, pp. 43–56; Robert Boudry, ‘Courbet et la fédération des artistes’,
Europe
29: 64–5 (April–May 1951), pp. 124–5; Henri Dubief, ‘Défense de Gustave Courbet’, p. 32.

13.
Gérald Dittmar,
Gustave Courbet et la Commune, le politique
(2007), p. 99.

14.
Paul Reclus,
Les frères Élie et Élisée Reclus
(1964), pp. 181–2, 189.

15.
Sylvie Chevalley, ‘La Comédie-française pendant la Commune’,
Europe
48 (November–December 1970), pp. 499–500; Catulle Mendès,
Les 73 jours de la Commune
(1871), p. 182. The Commune issued only one decree on theatres, suppressing ‘
tout monopole
’ (all monopolies), dated 1re prairial en 79 (20 May), p. 198; André Tissier, ‘Les spectacles pendant la Commune’,
Europe
48 (November–December 1970) p. 180.

16.
Mendès,
Les 73 jours de la Commune
, p. 181.

17.
Guy Tréal, ‘La Musique et la Commune’,
Europe
29: 64–5 (April–May 1951), pp. 112–21.

18.
Vizetelly,
My Adventures
, pp. 61, 65.

19.
Ibid., pp. 56, 61, 63, 65; R.D. Price, ‘Ideology and Motivation in the Paris Commune of 1871’,
Historical Journal
15 (1972), pp. 80–1; Godineau,
La Commune de Paris
, p. 65.

20.
Luc Willette,
Raoul Rigault, 25 ans, Communard, chef de police
(1984), pp. 96–102; Tombs,
The Paris Commune
, pp. 76–81.

21.
Georges Bourgin,
La Commune de Paris
(1971), p. 81; Édith Thomas,
Les pétroleuses
(1963), p. 213; Achille Dalseme,
Histoire des conspirations sous la Commune
(1872), pp. 100, 117.

22.
Adolphe Thiers,
Notes et souvenirs de M. Thiers 1870–1873
(1903), pp. 157–9; Adolphe Thiers,
Memoirs of M. Thiers 1870–1873
(New York, 1973), pp. 138–9; Gaston de Gallifet (Général), ‘Mes souvenirs’,
Journal des Débats
, 19, 22 and 25 July 1902.

23.
8J 3e conseil de guerre 6 dossier 29/8 Théophile Ferré; Sutter-Laumann,
Histoire d’un trente sous (1870–1881)
(1891), p. 221; Denis Arthur Bingham,
Recollections of Paris
, vol. 2 (London, 1896), p. 116; Johnson,
The Paradise of Association
, p. 210; P.-P. Cattelain,
Mémoires inédits du chef de la sûreté sous la Commune
(1900), pp. 115–20.

24.
Edgar Rodriguès,
Le carnaval rouge
(1872), p. 113; 8J 3e conseil de guerre 26 dossier 535 Gaston Da Costa; W. Pembroke Fetridge,
The Rise and Fall of the Paris Commune in 1871
(New York, 1871), pp. 382–7.

25.
Willette,
Raoul Rigault
, pp. 122–5; Fetridge,
The Rise and Fall of the Paris Commune
, p. 387.

26.
Gustave Cluseret (Général),
Mémoires du Général Cluseret
, vol. 2 (1887–88), pp. 213–15; Philip M. Katz,
From Appomattox to Montmartre: Americans and the Paris Commune
(Cambridge, MA, 1998), pp. 51–2; Gaston Da Costa,
Mémoires d’un Communard: la Commune vécue
(2009), p. 245.

27.
Cattelain,
Mémoires inédits
, p. 111; Philip Nord,
Les Impressionistes et la politique
(2009), p. 68.

28.
Henri Rochefort,
The Adventures of My Life
(London, 1896), p. 391.

29.
Tombs,
The Paris Commune
, pp. 88–90; Alistair Horne,
The Fall of Paris: The Siege and the Commune, 1870–71
(New York, 1965), p. 367.

30.
Willette,
Raoul Rigault
, pp. 127–9. Ferré replaced Rigault as Chief Delegate at the Prefecture of Police on 13 May.

31.
Pierre Courthion,
Courbet raconté par lui-même et par ses amis
, vol. 1 (Geneva, 1948); Willette,
Raoul Rigault
, pp. 154–5; Reclus,
La Commune de Paris
, pp. 137–8.

32.
Frederic Harrison, ‘The Revolution and the Commune’,
Fortnightly Review
, 53:9 (May 1871), pp. 559, 573.

33.
Jacques Rougerie,
Procès des Communards
(1978), pp. 33–5, 125–34; Rougerie,
La Commune de 1871
, pp. 99–102; Jacques Rougerie, ‘Composition d’une population insurgée’,
Mouvement social
48 (July–September 1964), pp. 34, 46. Carolyn Eichner,
Surmounting the Barricades: Women in the Paris Commune
(Bloomington, IN, 2004), p. 29. The median age was thirty-two: General Appert, ‘Rapport d’ensemble … sur les opérations de la justice militaire relatives à l’insurrection de 1871’,
Annales de l’Assemblée nationale
43, du 1er au 17 décembre 1875 (1876), t. 43, p. 117.

34.
Rougerie,
La Commune de 1871
, pp. 99–102; Rougerie, ‘Composition d’une population insurgée’, p. 46.

35.
David Shafer, ‘Plus que des ambulancières: Women in Articulation and Defence of their Ideals during the Paris Commune’,
French History
7:1 (1993), p. 97; Rougerie, ‘Composition d’une population insurgée’, pp. 33–46; Appert, ‘Rapport d’ensemble’, p. 117; William Serman,
La Commune de Paris
(1986), pp. 282–3. Among the professions: masons 2,293; shoemakers 1,491; domestics 1,402; coachmen 1,024; cabinetmakers 1,657; day labourers 2,901; locksmiths/mechanics 2,664; building painters 863, etc.; Kathleen Jones and Françoise Vergès, ‘“Aux citoyennes!”’, pp. 716–19.

36.
Wickham Hoffman:
Camp, Court, and Siege: A Narrative of Personal Adventure and Observation during Two Wars, 1861–1865, 1870–71
(New York, 1877), pp. 246, 261.

37.
Paul Lidsky,
Les écrivains contre la Commune
(1970), p. 48.

38.
George J. Becker, ed.,
Paris Under Siege, 1870–71: From the Goncourt Journal
(Ithaca, NY, 1969), p. 263.

39.
Price, ‘Ideology and Motivation’, p. 84; Robert Tombs, ‘Prudent Rebels: the 2nd arrondissement during the Paris Commune of 1871’,
French History
5:4 (1991), pp. 393–413.

40.
Horne,
The Fall of Paris
, p. 106; Stewart Edwards, ed.,
The Communards of Paris, 1871
(Ithaca, NY, 1973), pp. 81–3; Godineau,
La Commune de Paris
, pp. 91–3; Rials,
Nouvelle histoire
, pp. 422–3.

41.
Pierre Lévêque, ‘Les courants politiques de la Commune de Paris’, in Claude Latta, ed.,
La Commune de 1871
(Saint-Etienne, 2004), pp. 32–5; Johnson,
The Paradise of Association
, pp. 138–44.

42.
Edwards,
The Communards
, pp. 127–30.

43.
Bourgin,
La Commune de Paris
, pp. 55–6; Robert Tombs, ‘Harbingers or Entrepreneurs? A Worker’s Cooperative during the Paris Commune’,
Historical Journal
27:4 (1984), pp. 970–77. The Association des Ouvriers de la Metallurgie was the other major cooperative.

44.
Edwards,
The Communards
, pp. 138–9; Rials,
Nouvelle histoire
, p. 419; Sébastien Commissaire,
Mémoires et souvenirs
, vol. 2 (1888), pp. 373–4. The salary decree was approved on 21 May.

45.
Jacques Rougerie,
Paris libre 1871
(1971), p. 78.

46.
Jones and Vergès, ‘“Aux citoyennes!”’, pp. 711–13; Gay Gullickson,
Unruly Women of Paris: Images of the Commune
(Ithaca, NY, 1996), pp. 122–3; Eichner,
Surmounting the Barricades
, p. 1; Johnson,
The Paradise of Association
, p. 235.

47.
Shafer, ‘
Plus que des ambulancières
’, p. 91.

48.
Eugene Schulkind, ‘Socialist Women During the 1871 Paris Commune’,
Past and Present
106 (February 1985), pp. 133–4; Robert Tombs, ‘Les Communeuses’,
Sociétés et Représentations
6 (June 1998), p. 54; Jones and Vergès, ‘“Aux citoyennes!”’, pp. 716–19; Rougerie,
Procès des Communards
, p. 214.

49.
8J 6e conseil de guerre, 683; Sylvie Braibant, ed.,
Elisabeth Dmitrieff
(1993), p. 162; Eichner,
Surmounting the Barricades
, p. 29; Godineau,
La Commune de Paris
, pp. 153–5; David Barry,
Women and Political Insurgency: France in the Mid-Nineteenth Century
(Basingstoke, 1996), pp. 130–1.

50.
Jones and Vergès, ‘“Aux citoyennes!”’, p. 728; Eichner,
Surmounting the Barricades
, pp. 111–15.

51.
8J 6e conseil de guerre, 683; Gullickson,
Unruly Women
, pp. 121–5; Eichner,
Surmounting the Barricades
, p. 69.

52.
8J 4e conseil de guerre 131, dossier 688; Eichner,
Surmounting the Barricades
, pp. 36–7, 63–5, 91–3; Braibant,
Elisabeth Dmitrieff
, pp. 126, 141–2, 146–7.

53.
Edwards,
The Communards
, pp. 130–3.

54.
Schulkind, ‘Socialist Women’, pp. 136, 154–8, 162; Jones and Vergès, ‘“Aux citoyennes!”’, pp. 714–15; Eichner,
Surmounting the Barricades
, pp. 69–78, 87. One document suggests that in the Seventh Arrondissement, 365 women were members.

55.
Katz,
From Appomattox to Montmartre
, pp. 15–16, 26, 52–3, 354, 364, 426, 478.

56.
René Bidouze,
72 jours qui changèrent la Cité: La Commune de Paris dans l’histoire des services publics
(2001), pp. 7, 88–9, 93, 100–1, 121, 130–1, 144.