Making War to Keep Peace (50 page)

85. “The United Nations and the Situation in Haiti” (New York: United Nations Department of Public Information, March 1995), prepared by the Department of Public Information, United Nations—as of September 1996. http://www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/Missions/unmih_b.htm; David Malone,
Decision-Making in the UN Security Council
, 122–124.

86. See Charles Lane, “Island of Disenchantment,”
New Republic
, September 29, 1997. A U.S. embassy cable of September 1, 1995, stated that the FBI investigation of the Bertin assassination was at a standstill owing to lack of cooperation from the government of Haiti and that persons close to the president who were thought to be implicated in execution-style killings continued to hold their positions.

87. Douglas Farah, “‘From Death to Life:' One Year After President's Return, Haiti Fitfully Democratizes,”
Washington Post
, September 30, 1995.

88. Robert A. Pastor, “Mission to Haiti #3, Elections for Parliament and Municipalities, June 23–26, 1995”(Atlanta: Carter Center, July 17, 1995).

89. Robert A. Pastor, “A Popular Democratic Revolution in a Predemocratic Society: The Case of Haiti,” in Robert I. Rotberg, ed.,
Haiti Renewed: Political and Economic Prospects
(Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), 131.

90. Ron Howell, “Haiti Votes, in Peaceful Confusion,”
Newsday
, June 26, 1995; International Republican Institute (IRI) News Release, June 24, 1995. See also IRI News Release of June 26 and “Haiti Election Alert,” June 27, 1995.

91. Pastor, “A Popular Democratic Revolution in a Predemocratic Society,” 131.

92. Ibid., 127.

93. Ibid., 131.

94. Ibid., 127.

95. “No Major Irregularities in Haiti Vote,”
United Press International
, June 25, 1995.

96. “Half of Electorate Turns Out for Poll, Marked by Irregularities,”
Agence France Presse
, June 26, 1995.

97. State Department briefing,
Federal News Service
, June 27, 1995.

98. Anita Snow, “U.S. Official: Elections Were Least Violent in Haiti's History,”
Associated Press
, June 28, 1995.

99. United Nations Security Council, “Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission in Haiti,” S/1995/614, July 24, 1995.

100. Dominique Levanti, “International Observers Hail Fairness of Haitian Vote,”
Agence France Presse
, June 28, 1995.

101. See OAS, “Final Report of the OAS Electoral Observation Mission to the Legislative and Municipal Elections in Haiti,” CP/doc.2703/96, February 20,
1996, and corr. 1, March 5, 1996; Pastor, “Mission to Haiti #3”; United Nations Security Council, “Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission in Haiti.”

102. Préval had “such a close relationship with President Jean-Bertrand Aristide that supporters call[ed] them ‘the twins,' despite their sharp differences in temperament and upbringing.”(Douglas Farah, “Aristide's ‘Twin' on Center Stage,”
Washington Post
, December 17, 1995.)

103. “Gilman Charges Cover-up as White House Claims Executive Privilege over Documents on Political Killings,” press release issued September 25, 1996.

104. Haiti: “Steps Forward, Steps Back: Human Rights 10 Years after the Coup,” September 27, 2001, http://www.web.amnesty.org/library/index/engAMR360102001? OpenDocument.

105. OAS, “Final Report: The Election Observation Mission for the Legislative, Municipal, and Local Elections in Haiti, February to July 2000” (OAS, Unit for the Promotion of Democracy, 2001), Electoral Observations in the Americas Series, No. 28, OEA/Ser.D/XX, SG/UPD/II.28, December 13, 2000.

106. OAS, “The OAS Electoral Observation Mission in Haiti: Chief of Mission Report to the OAS Permanent Council,” July 13, 2000, http://www.haitipolicy.org/archives/Archives/June-August2000/oas9.htm. See also OAS, “Final Report…February to July 2000.”

107. OAS, “Electoral Observation Mission in Haiti: OAS Will Not Observe Haiti's July 9 Second Round Elections,” Press Release, July 7, 2000, http:/www.upd.oas.org/EOM/Haiti/haitiobservation200010.htm.

108. OAS, “Chief of Mission Report.”

109. Yves Colon, “U.S. Warns against Travel to Haiti before Elections,”
Miami Herald
, November 19, 2000.

110. Edward Cody, “Divided and Desperate Haiti Braces for Aristide's Return,”
Washington Post
, February 1, 2001; Yves Colon, “Aristide Urged to Condemn Violence,”
Miami Herald
, January 12, 2001.

111. Colon, “Aristide Urged to Condemn Violence.”

112. The United States did not send an official delegation to the inauguration; however, the State Department said that “in support of national interests in Haiti and in view of our historic ties to the Haitian people,” U.S. ambassador to Haiti Brian Dean Curran represented Washington (Eric Green, “U.S. Urges Aristide, Opposition to Address Haiti's Difficulties,”
Washington File
, U.S. Department of State, February 7, 2001.)

113. “Annan Recommends Winding Up UN Mission to Haiti,”
Agence France Presse
, November 28, 2000.

114. Ibid.

115. “Report of the Secretary General on the OAS Mission and of the Joint
OAS/CARICOM Mission to Haiti,” June 3, 2001, www.oas.org/Assembly2001/documentsE/AG264.htm.

116. “United States Urges Calm Among Political Parties in Haiti,”
Washington File
, U.S. Department of State, March 12, 2001.

117. AG/RES. 1831 (XXXI-O/01), June 5, 2001.

118. Quoted in “New Elections OK'd in Haiti,”
Miami Herald
, July 18, 2001.

119. “OAS Secretary-General Condemns Violence, Calls for the Continuation of Political Dialogue in Haiti,” OAS, E-165/01, July 31, 2001.

120. Michael Norton, “Talks Collapse in Haiti,”
Associated Press
, October 14, 2001.

121. Michael Norton, “Police Defeat Coup Attempt in Haiti,”
Miami Herald
, December 18, 2001.

122. Nancy San Martin, “OAS Report Says Attack in Haiti on Palace Was Not Coup Attempt,”
Miami Herald
, July 2, 2002; OAS, “Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Events of December 17, 2001, in Haiti,” OEA/Ser. G, CP/INF 4702/02, July 1, 2001.

123. Michael Norton, “Top OAS Official Leaves Haiti Empty-Handed after Vain Attempt to Jump Start Talks to Break Political Impasse,”
Associated Press
, July 10, 2002.

124. Ibid.

125. OAS, CP/RES. 822 (1331/02), September 4, 2002.

126. Tim Johnson, “Haiti on Road to Ruin, OAS Leader Says,”
Miami Herald
, November 7, 2002; Marika Lynch, “Critics Doubt Haiti Vow to Disarm Political Gangs,”
Miami Herald
, November 19, 2002.

127. Johnson, “Haiti on Road to Ruin.”

128. For example, “Florida Voyage Spurs Charges,”
Washington Post
, October 31, 2002; Charles Babin and Jennifer Maloney, “Sharpton Urges Release of Haitians,”
Miami Herald
, November 3, 2002; Andrew Elliott and Larry Lebowitz, “Haitians a Threat, INS Says,”
Washington Post
, November 7, 2002; Raymond A. Joseph, “Aristide's Refugee Politics,”
Wall Street Journal
, October 31, 2002; Sabra Ayres, “U.S. Policy Favors Cuban Refugees,”
Washington Post
, November 14, 2002.

129. Adapted from Jeane Kirkpatrick, “A Pro-Democracy Policy,”
Washington Post
, July 13, 1992.

130. Jeane Kirkpatrick, “The Theory and Practice of Clintonism.” in Jeane Kirkpatrick, Jacqueline Tillman, et al.,
Security and Insecurity
.

131. Anthony P. Maingot,
Current History
(February 1994).

4. THE BALKAN WARS: MAKING WAR TO KEEP THE PEACE

1. James Gow, Triumph of the Lack of Will: International Diplomacy and the Yugoslav War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 328.

2. A good account of early Serb efforts at ethnic cleansing in Kosovo is the
monograph “Dismissals and Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo,” published in October 1992 by the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), Rue Montagnc aux-Herles-Potageres 37–41 B 1000, Brussels.

3. Janez Drnovsek,
Escape from Hell
, trans. Greg Davies, Robert Metcalfe, and Toby Robertson (Martigny, France: Editions Latour, 1996), 167. Drnovsek saw special irony in the Bush administration's reflexive effort to encourage the preservation of the state.

4. Ibid.

5. Ibid., 171.

6. James A. Baker III with Thomas M. DeFrank,
The Politics of Diplomacy Revolution, War and Peace, 1989–1992
(New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1995), 636.

7. Ibid.

8. Laura Silber and Allan Little,
Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation
(New York: Penguin USA, 1997), 191. First published in the United States by TV Books in 1996.

9.
The President's Fiscal Year 1990 Budget Request for Eastern Europe
, March 7, 1990 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990), 38–40.

10. Eagleburger testimony in
President's Fiscal Year 1991 Budget Request for Eastern Europe: Hearing Before the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives
, March 7, 1990 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990), 40.

11. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 480.

12. Ibid., 481.

13. “The U.S. Commitment to Reform,” U.S. Department of State, August 12, 1991, 596–98, 527.

14. Colin L. Powell, “Why Generals Get Nervous,”
New York Times
, October 8, 1992.

15. Silber and Little,
Yugoslavia
, 201.

16. Noel Malcolm,
Bosnia: A Short History
(New York: New York University Press, 1996), 225.

17. Ibid., 226.

18. UN Security Council Resolution 713, September 25, 1991.

19. UN Security Council Resolution 1021, November 22, 1995.

20. Cyrus Vance's opinion stated that the arms embargo continued in force and applied to all areas of Yugoslavia and all Yugoslav republics. The Security Council then adopted Resolution 727 (January 8, 1992), which affirmed that the arms embargo should apply in accordance with the report.

21. Ibid., vii.

22. Misha Glenny,
The Fall of Yugoslavia
, 3rd ed., rev. (New York: Penguin Books, 1996), 136.

23. Roy Gutman,
A Witness to Genocide
. (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1993). ix.

24. Ibid., xi.

25. Warren Zimmerman,
Origins of a Catastrophe: Yugoslavia and Its Destroyers
(New York: Random House and Times Books, 1999), 194.

26. Tadeusz Mazowiecki, special rapporteur for the UN Commission on Human Rights, wrote eighteen detailed accounts of the human rights situation in the former Yugoslavia between July 1992 and his resignation in August 1995, after the Srebrenica massacre. His reports provide detailed accounts of most of the violations of human rights, including the systematic rape of women and girls of all ages in many Bosnian towns and villages, and the number of pregnancies and abortions resulting from these rapes. His accounts were submitted to the Commission on Human Rights, a subdivision of the Economic and Social Council.

27. Former Yugoslavia, UNPROFOR, United Nations peace-keeping profile, last update August 31, 1996.

28. Samantha Power, Breakdown in the Balkans: A Chronicle of Events, January, 1989 to May, 1993 (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1993).

29. Silber and Little,
Yugoslavia
, 232–42.

30. Gutman,
A Witness to Genocide
.

31. John F. Burns, “Mitterand Flies into Sarajevo: Shells Temper ‘Message of Hope,'”
New York Times
, June 29, 1992.

32. Chapter VII of the UN Charter authorizes the use of force. A Security Council resolution adopted under Chapter VII provides such authorization.

33. Seth Faison, “UN Chief Mired in Dispute With Security Council,”
New York Times
, July 24, 1992, p. A3.

34. See Jeane Kirkpatrick's testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.
American Policy in Bosnia: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on European Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate
, February 18, 1993 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), p. 16. Levy has written about this incident in his untranslated
Le Lys et la Cendre
(Lilies and Ashes) (Paris: Grasset, 1996).

35. Gutman,
A Witness to Genocide
, xvii.

36. Ibid.

37. William Drozdiak, “NATO Sets Plans to Enforce Ban on Serb Flights; U.S., Allies Are Said to Consider Other Balkan Military Options,”
Washington Post
, December 16, 1992.

38. The Associated Press obtained a copy of the September 1 orders issued to Serbian police officers and authorities, governing permissible conduct in areas they occupied. The Center for Security Policy issued a Decision Brief (Document No.
92-D 104, September 1, 1992) that reproduced the orders, headlined “Everything but the Yellow Star: MiloÅ¡ević's Script for a Serbian Holocaust.”

39. Clarence K. Streit, “32 Nations Gather to Help Refugees,”
New York Times
, July 6, 1938.

40. Ibid.

41. Baker,
The Politics of
Diplomacy, 649.

42. Baker testimony in
The START Treaty: Hearings Before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate
, June 23, 1992 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992), 6.

43. “Developments in Yugoslavia and Europe, August 1992,” August 4, 1992 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992), 1993–98.

44. The three Foreign Service officers who resigned in protest went to work on behalf of a U.S. policy they could support. They played a major role in the organization and management of the Balkan Action Group, a bipartisan group of people who shared their views.