In the Graveyard of Empires: America's War in Afghanistan (49 page)

20.
Ibid., p. 9.

21.
Ahmed Rashid,
Descent into Chaos: The United States and the Failure of Nation Building in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia
(New York: Viking, 2008), pp. 3–6.

22.
U.S. Army Military History Institute: Tape 032802a, MAJ D. int.; Tape 032802p, MAJ C. int.; Tape 032602a, CPT H. et al. int. Also see John Car-land,
The Campaign Against Kandahar
(Washington, DC: U.S. Army Center of Military History Information Paper, March 4, 2002), pp. 2–5.

23.
U.S. Army Military History Institute: Tape 032602p, CPT M. int.

24.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1383, December 6, 2001, S/RES/1383 (2001).

25.
On Operation Anaconda, see
Operation Anaconda: An Air Power Perspective
(Washington, DC: Headquarters United States Air Force AF/XOL, February 2005); Paul L. Hastert, “Operation Anaconda: Perception Meets Reality in the Hills of Afghanistan,”
Studies in Conflict and Terrorism,
vol. 28, pp. 11–20; Sean Naylor,
Not a Good Day to Die: The Untold Story of Operation Anaconda
(New York: Berkley Books, 2005).

26.
Author interview with Ambassador Wendy Chamberlin, August 27, 2008.

27.
Author interview with Robert Grenier, November 6, 2007.

28.
Author interview with Lieutenant Colonel Ed O’Connell (ret.), July 8, 2007.

29.
Pervez Musharraf,
In the Line of Fire: A Memoir
(New York: Free Press, 2006), p. 217.

30.
Philip Smucker,
Al Qa’ida’s Great Escape: The Military and the Media on Terror’s Trail
(Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2004); Berntsen and Pezzullo,
Jawbreaker,
pp. 255–64; Mary Anne Weaver, “Lost at Tora Bora,”
New York Times,
September 11, 2005.

31.
Weaver, “Lost at Tora Bora.”

32.
Author interview with U.S. intelligence operative who was in the vicinity
of Tora Bora at the time, March 6, 2009. Berntsen and Pezzullo,
Jawbreaker,
pp. 314–15.

33.
Brigadier Muhammad Ijaz Chaudry, “Pakistan’s Counterterrorism Strategy,” Paper presented at National Defense University, Washington, DC, July 27, 2007, p. 12.

34.
Berntsen and Pezzullo,
Jawbreaker,
pp. 307–8.

35.
Author interview with Robert Grenier, November 6, 2007.

36.
European Union and UNAMA, Discussion
of Taliban and Insurgency
(Kabul: European Union and UNAMA, April 30, 2007), p. 1.

37.
Stephen T. Hosmer,
The Army’s Role in Counterinsurgency and Insurgency
(Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1990), pp. 30–3I; Daniel Byman et al.,
Trends in Outside Support for Insurgent Movements
(Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2001); Byman,
Deadly Connections: States that Sponsor Terrorism
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

38.
Data are from the Population Census Organization, Statistics Division, Ministry of Economic Affairs and Statistics, Government of Pakistan, 2007. The Population Census Organization estimated that 15.42 percent of a total population of 160,612,500 had Pashto as their mother tongue.

39.
David Galula,
Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice
(St. Petersburg, FL: Hailer Publishing, 1964), pp. 23–24.

40.
James D. Fearon and David D. Laitin, “Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War,”
American Political Science Review,
vol. 97, no. 1, February 2003, pp. 75–90; Galula,
Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice,
pp. 35–37.

41.
Agreement between His Highness Amir Abdur Rahman Khan G.C.S.I., Amir of Afghanistan and its Dependencies on the one part and Sir Henry Mortimer Durand K.C.I.C.S.I., Foreign Secretary to the Government of India representing the Government of India, on the other part. Signed in Kabul, Afghanistan, on November 12, 1893.

42.
Ralph Peters, “Blood Borders: How a Better Middle East Would Look,”
Armed Forces Journal,
June 2006.

43.
Author interview with senior Afghanistan government official, Kabul, Afghanistan, September 2006.

44.
Pakistani officials frequently denied this assertion. As one Pakistani senator noted in testimony before Pakistan’s Senate Foreign Relations Committee: “Pakistan has arrested over 500 Taliban this year from Quetta and 400 of them have been handed over to Afghans.” Pakistan Senate Foreign Relations Committee,
Pakistan-Afghanistan Relations,
Report 13 (Islamabad: Pakistan Senate Foreign Relations Committee, March 2007), p. 38.

45.
Author interview with Ambassador Wendy Chamberlin, August 27, 2008.

46.
Author interview with Richard Armitage, October 17, 2007.

47.
Author interview with Robert Grenier, November 6, 2007.

48.
Joint Paper by the Government of Afghanistan, UNAMA, CFC-A, ISAF, Canada, Netherlands, UK, and U.S. Governments,
Assessment of Factors Contributing to Insecurity in Afghanistan
(Kabul: Government of Afghanistan, 2006), p. 1.

49.
See, for example, “Al Jazeera Airs Hikmatyar Video,” Al Jazeera TV, May 4, 2006.

50.
Amrullah Saleh,
Strategy of Insurgents and Terrorists in Afghanistan
(Kabul: National Directorate of Security, 2006), p. 2.

51.
European Union and UNAMA,
Discussion of Taliban and Insurgency,
p. 2.

52.
Mahomed Ali Jinnah,
Quaid-i-Azam Mahomed Ali Jinnah:
Speeches as Governor-General of Pakistan, 1947–1948
(Karachi: Pakistan Publications, 1960), p. 133.

53.
Dossiers of Rebel Field Commanders, date unknown. Released by the Cold War International History Project.

54.
Steve Coll,
Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001
(New York: Penguin Press, 2004), pp. 201–3.

55.
Milt Bearden and James Risen,
The Main Enemy: The Inside Story of the CIA’s Final Showdown with the KGB
(New York: Random House, 2003), p. 289.

56.
On Pakistan raids against Haqqani, see Iqbal Khattak, “40 Militants Killed in North Waziristan,”
Daily Times
(Pakistan), September 30, 2005; “Pakistani Law Enforcers Intensify Hunt for Haqqani,”
Pajhwok Afghan News,
March 7, 2006. On Haqqani’s historical role, also see Charles Dunbar, “Afghanistan in 1986: The Balance Endures,”
Asian Survey,
vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 127–42.

57.
Coll,
Ghost Wars,
pp. 131, 167, 202.

58.
European Union and UNAMA,
Discussion of Taliban and Insurgency,
p. 2

59.
Rahimullah Yousufzai interview with Sirajuddin Haqqani, July 2008.

60.
John D. Negroponte, Annual Threat Assessment of the Director of Natio Intelligence for the Senate Armed Services Committee, Statement to Senate Armed Services Committee, February 28, 2006.

61.
“Al Jazeera Reveals New Al Qa’ida Leader,”
Washington Times,
May 25, 2007, p. 17.

62.
Mariam Abou Zahab, “Changing Patterns of Social and Political Life Among the Tribal Pashtuns in Pakistan,” Paper presented at the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, September 2006.

63.
On Ismail, see “Taliban Claim Shooting Down U.S. Helicopter,”
The News
(Islamabad), June 29, 2005. On Wana, see Intikhab Amir, “Whose Writ Is It Anyway?”
The Herald
(Pakistan), April 2006, pp. 80–82.

64.
On al Qa’ida in the tribal areas, see Musharraf,
In the Line of Fire,
pp. 264–81.

65.
U.S. Department of State,
Afghanistan, Autumn 2006: A Campaign at a Crossroads
(Washington, DC: Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State, 2006), p. 2. Unclassified document.

66.
Antonio Giustozzi,
Koran, Kalashnikov, and Laptop: The Neo-Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan
(London: Hurst & Company, 2007), p. 13.

67.
Quoted in Selig S. Harrison, “Ethnicity and the Political Stalemate in Pakistan,” in Ali Banuazizi and Myron Weiner, eds.,
The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics
(Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1986), p. 285.

68.
Statement of Karen P. Tandy, Administrator, U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency, Testimony before the House Armed Services Committee, Washington, DC, June 28, 2006.

Chapter Seven

1.
Author interview with Richard Armitage, October 17, 2007.

2.
Author interview with Colin Powell, January 15, 2008.

3.
David Rohde and David E. Sanger, “How the ‘Good War’ in Afghanistan Went Bad,”
New York Times,
August 12, 2007, p. A1.

4.
Author interview with Ambassador James Dobbins, October 4, 2007.

5.
See, for example, Vernon Loeb, “Franks Supports an Afghan Army,”
Washington Post,
February 26, 2002, p. A16; Tim Friend, “U.S. Hints It Will Back More Peacekeepers,”
USA Today,
February 25, 2002, p. IA.

6.
Agreement on Provisional Arrangements in Afghanistan Pending the ReEstablishment of Permanent Government Institutions, Annex I, Paragraph 3. The agreement, commonly referred to as the Bonn Agreement, was signed on December 5, 2001.

7.
United Nations,
Daily Press Briefing by the Office of the Spokesman for the Secretary-General
(New York: United Nations, February 6, 2002). Also see, for example, William M. Reilly, “Brahimi: Expand, Extend Afghan Force,” United Press International, February 6, 2002.

8.
Author interview with Ambassador James Dobbins, October 4, 2007.

9.
Author interview with Richard Armitage, October 17, 2007; author interview with Douglas Feith, November 4, 2008.

10.
Author interview with senior U.S. administration official, Washington, DC, January 15, 2008.

11.
Douglas J. Feith,
War and Decision: Inside the Pentagon at the Dawn of the War on Terrorism
(New York: HarperCollins, 2008), pp. 1012.

12.
In the October 11, 2000, debate between George W. Bush and Al Gore, Bush noted: “I don’t think our troops ought to be used for what’s called nation-building. I think our troops ought to be used to fight and win wars.” See Commission on Presidential Debates, Debate Transcript: The Second Gore-Bush Presidential Debate, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, October 11, 2000.

13.
Todd Purdum, “Bush Offers Afghanistan U.S. Help for Training of Milit and Police,”
New York Times,
January 29, 2002, p. A13. On opposition fr Pentagon officials, see Bill Gertz, “Rumsfeld Takes Dim View of U.S. Pea keeping Role,”
Washington Times,
February 27, 2002, p. A8; Loeb, “Fras Supports an Afghan Army.”

14.
Press Briefing by Ari Fleischer (Washington, DC: White House Office of the Press Secretary, February 25, 2002).

15.
Author interview with Ambassador James Dobbins, October 4, 2007. See Michael Gordon, “A Nation Challenged: Policy Divisions,”
New York Times
, February 21, 2002, p. Ai. On the divisions between the State and Defense Departments, also see Ben Barber, “U.S. Considers Force Expansion,”
Washington Times
, February 22, 2002, p. A13; Alan Sipress, “White House May Support Peacekeeping Force Growth,”
Washington Post
, February 28, 2002, p. A16.

16.
Author interview with Ambassador James Dobbins, October 4, 2007.

17.
Author interview with Richard Armitage, October 17, 2007.

18.
The account of the NSC meeting was courtesy of the author’s interview with Ambassador James Dobbins, October 4, 2007.

19.
On the Marshall Plan, see, for example, Melvyn A. Leffler,
A Preponderance of Power: National Security, The Truman Administration, and the Cold War
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992), pp. 157–65, 173, 178; John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment:
A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 54–88; Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 37–43; Marc Trachtenberg,
A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), pp. 62–63, 74.