In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind (56 page)

Other information for this chapter was drawn from the following:

Eyzaguirre, C., and S. W. Kuffler. “Processes of excitation in the dendrites and in the soma of single isolated sensory nerve cells of the lobster and crayfish.”
J. Gen. Physiol.
39 (1955): 87–119.

———. “Further study of soma, dendrite and axon scitation in single neurons.”
J. Gen. Physiol.
39 (1955): 121–53.

Jackson, J. H.
Selected Writings of John Hughlings Jackson.
Edited by J. Taylor. Vol. 1. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1931.

Katz, B. “Stephen W. Kuffler.” In
Steve: Remembrances of Stephen W. Kuffler
. Edited by O. J. McMahan. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, 1990.

Kuffler, S. W., and C. Eyzaguirre. “Synaptic inhibition in an isolated nerve cell.”
J. Gen. Physiol.
39 (1955): 155–84.

Penfield, W., and E. Boldrey. “Somatic motor and sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of man as studied by electrical stimulation.”
Brain
60 (1937): 389–443.

Penfield, W., and T. Rasmussen.
The Cerebral Cortex of Man: A Clinical Study of Localization of Function
. New York: Macmillan, 1950.

Purpura, D. P., E. R. Kandel, and G. F. Gestrig. “LSD-serotonin interaction on central synaptic activity.” Cited in D. P. Purpura. “Experimental analysis of the inhibitory action of lysergic acid diethylamide on cortical dendritic activity in psychopharmacology of psychotomimetic and psychotherapeutic drugs.”
Annals N. Y. Acad. of Sci.
66 (1957): 515–36.

Sulloway, F. J.
Freud: Biologist of the Mind
. New York: Basic Books, 1979.

8: Different Memories, Different Brain Regions

For a discussion of Gall, see A. Harrington,
Medicine, Mind, and the Double Brain: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Thought
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987); and R. M. Young,
Mind, Brain and Adaptation in the 19th Century
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970).

Broca’s 1864 announcement that the left hemisphere governed speech was reprinted in “Sur le siège de la faculté du langue articulé,”
Bull. Soc. Antropol. 6
(1868): 337–93; quotation from p. 378. This article has been translated into English by E. A. Berker, A. H. Berker, and A. Smith as “Localization of speech in the third left frontal convolution.”
Arch. Neurol
. 43 (1986): 1065–72.

Milner talked about H.M. in P. J. Hills,
Memory’s Ghost
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), p. 110.

Other information in this chapter was drawn from the following:

For a discussion of Broca and Wernicke, see N. Geschwind,
Selected Papers on Language and the Brain
, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 16 (Norwell, Mass.: Kluwer, 1974); and T. F. Feinberg and M. J. Farah,
Behavioral Neurology and Neuropsychology
(New York: McGraw Hill, 1997).

Bruner, J. S. “Modalities of memory.” In
The Pathology of Memory,
edited by G. A. Talland and N. C. Waugh. New York: Academic Press, 1969.

Flourens, P.
Recherches Expérimentales sur les Propriétes et les Fonctions du Système Nerveux, dans les Animaux Vertébrés
. Paris: Chez Crevot, 1824.

Gall, F.J., and G. Spurzheim.
Anatomie et Physiologie du Système Nerveux en Général, et du Cerveau en Particulier, avec des Observations sur la Possibilité de Reconnaître Plusiers Dispositions Intellectuelles et Morales de l’Homme et des Animaux, par la Configuration de leurs Têtes.
Paris: Schoell, 1810.

James, W.
The Works of William James: The Principles of Psychology.
Edited by F. Burkhardt and F. Bowers. 3 vols. 1890. Reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981.

Lashley, K. S. “In search of the engram.”
Soc. Exp. Biol.
4 (1950): 454–82.

Milner, B, L. R. Squire, and E. R. Kandel. “Cognitive neuroscience and the study of memory.” Review.
Neuron
20 (1998): 445–68.

Ryle, G.
Concept of Mind.
New York: Barnes & Noble, 1949.

Schacter, D.
Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind and the Past.
New York: Basic Books, 1996.

Scoville, W. B., and B. Milner. “Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesion.”
J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat.
20 (1957): 411–21.

Searle, J. R.
Mind: A Brief Introduction.
London: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Spurzheim, J. G.
A View of the Philosophical Principles of Phrenology
, 3rd ed. London: Knight, 1825.

Squire, L. R.
Memory and Brain.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.

Squire, L. R., and E. R. Kandel.
Memory: From Mind to Molecules.
New York: Scientific American, 1999.

Squire, L. R., P. C. Slater, and P. M. Chace. “Retrograde amnesia: Temporal gradient in very long term memory following electroconvulsive therapy.”
Science
187 (1975): 77–79.

Warren, R. M.
Helmholtz on Perception: Its Physiology and Development.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1968.

Wernicke, C.
Der Aphasische Symptomencomplex.
Breslau: Cohn & Weigert, 1874.

9: Searching for an Ideal System to Study Memory

Alden Spencer and I published several papers together on the hippocampus. See E. R. Kandel, W. A. Spencer, and F. J. Brinley Jr., “Electrophysiology of hippocampal neurons. I: Sequential invasion and synaptic organization,”
J. Neurophysiol.
24 (1961): 225–42; E. R. Kandel and W. A. Spencer, “Electrophysiology of hippocampal neurons. II: After-potentials and repetitive firing,”
J. Neurophysiol.
24 (1961): 243–59; W. A. Spencer and E. R. Kandel, “Electrophysiology of hippocampal neurons. III: Firing level and time constant,”
J. Neurophysiol.
24 (1961): 260–71; and W. A. Spencer and E. R. Kandel, “Electrophysiology of hippocampal neurons. IV: Fast prepotentials.”
J. Neurophysiol.
24 (1961): 272–85; E. R. Kandel and W. A. Spencer, “The pyramidal cell during hippocampal seizure.”
Epilepsia
2 (1961): 63–69; and W. A. Spencer and E. R. Kandel, “Hippocampal neuron responses to selective activation of recurrent collaterals of hippocampofugal axons,”
Exptl. Neurol.
4 (1961): 149–61.

The experiments on learning memory and the perforant pathway were performed in 2004 and published as: M. F. Nolan, G. Malleret, J. T. Dudman, D. L. Buhl, B. Santoro, E. Gibbs, S. Vronskaya, G. Buzsáki, S. A. Siegelbaum, E. R. Kandel, and A. Morozov, “A behavioral role for dendritic integration: HCN1 channels constrain spatial memory and plasticity at inputs to distal dendrites of CA1 pyramidal neurons.”
Cell
119 (2004): 719–32.

The advantages and biology of
Aplysia
are described in E. R. Kandel,
Cellular Basis of Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Neurobiology,
(San Francisco: Freeman, 1976); and in
The Behavioral Biology of Aplysia: A Contribution to the Comparative Study of Opisthobranch Molluscs
(San Francisco: Freeman, 1979).

Other information for this chapter was drawn from the following:

Brenner, S.
My Life in Science
. London: Biomed Central, 2002. “What you need…” is from pp. 56–60.

———. “Nature’s gift to science.” In
Les Prix Nobel/The Nobel Prizes
, edited by Nobel Foundation, 268–83. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell International, 2002.

Hilgard, E.
Theories of Learning.
New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1956.

10: Neural Analogs of Learning

For an earlier discussion of the Massachusetts Mental Health Center, see E. R. Kandel, “A new intellectual framework for psychiatry,”
Am. J. Psych.
155 (1998): 457–69. The study I carried out as a resident is E. R. Kandel, “Electrical properties of hypothalamic neuroendocrine cells.”
J. Gen. Physiol.
47 (1964): 691–717.

For a discussion of behaviorism, see I. P. Pavlov,
Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex,
trans. G. V. Anrep (London: Oxford University Press, 1927); B. F. Skinner,
The Behavior of Organisms
(New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1938); E. G. Boring,
A History of Experimental Psychology,
2nd ed. (New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, 1950); G. A. Kimble,
Hilgard and Marquis’ Conditioning and Learning,
2nd ed. (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1961); and J. Kornorski,
Conditioned Reflexes and Neuron Organization
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1948; quotation from pp. 79–80).

The quote from Max Perutz about Jim Watson is from H. F. Judson,
The Eighth Day of Creation
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979), p. 21.

The quote from Eccles is in J. C. Eccles, “Conscious experience and memory,” in
Brain and Conscious Experience
, ed. J. C. Eccles (New York: Springer, 1966): 314–44; quotation from p. 330.

Other information for this chapter was drawn from the following:

Cajal, S. R. “The Croonian Lecture. La fine structure des centres nerveux.”
Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B 55
(1894): 444–67. “Mental exercise facilitates…” is from p. 466.

Doty, R. W., and C. Guirgea. “Conditioned reflexes established by coupling electrical excitation to two cortical areas.” In
Brain Mechanisms and Learning,
edited by A. Fessard, R. W. Gerard, and J. Kornoski, 133–51. Oxford: Blackwell, 1961.

Kimble, G. A.
Foundations of Conditioning and Learning
. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967.

11: Strengthening Synaptic Connections

The studies of the analogs of habituation and sensitization were carried out in cell R2, earlier called the giant cell of
Aplysia.
This was published as E. R. Kandel and L. Tauc, “Mechanism of heterosynaptic facilitation in the giant cell of the abdominal ganglion of
Aplysia depilans,” J. Physiol.
(London) 181 (1965): 28–47. The studies on classical conditioning were carried out on nearby cells that were smaller; see E. R. Kandel and L. Tauc, “Heterosynaptic facilitation in neurons of the abdominal ganglion of
Aplysia depilans,” J. Physiol.
(London) 181 (1965): 1–27; quotation (“The fact that the connections…”) from p. 24.

Konrad Lorenz is quoted on earthworms in Y. Dudai,
Memory from A to Z
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 225.

Katz’s comment on Hill is also described in his “To tell the you truth, sir, we do it because it’s amusing!” in
The History of Neuroscience in Autobiography,
ed. L. R. Squire, vol. 1, 348–81 (Washington, D.C.: Society for Neuroscience, 1996).

For the excellent discussion of learning paradigms that influenced me, see E. Hilgard,
Theories of Learning
(New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1956); and G. A. Kimble,
Foundations of Conditioning and Learning
(New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967).

On historical anti-Semitism in France, see I. Y. Zingular and S. W. Bloom, eds.
Inclusion and Exclusion: Perspectives on Jews from the Enlightenment to the Dreyfus Affair
(Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2003).

Other information for this chapter was drawn from the following:

Kandel, E. R.
Cellular Basis of Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Neurobiology.
San Francisco: Freeman, 1976.

Kandel, E. R., and L. Tauc. “Mechanism of prolonged heterosynaptic facilitation.”
Nature
202 (1964): 145–47.

———. “Heterosynaptic facilitation in neurons of the abdominal ganglion of
Aplysia depilans.” J. Physiol.
(London) 181 (1965): 1–27.

———. “Mechanism of heterosynaptic facilitation in the giant cell of the abdominal ganglion of
Aplysia depilans.” J. Physiol
. (London) 181 (1965): 28–47.

12: A Center for Neurobiology and Behavior