How Everyone Became Depressed (33 page)

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6. Nigel Nicolson et al., Eds., The Letters of Virginia Woolf, 1929–1931, Vol. 4 (London: Harcourt, 1978), 13; Virginia Woolf to Vita Sackville-West, Feb. 4, 1929. 7. See, for example, Philip Kolb, Ed., Marcel Proust Correspondence, Vol. 5, 1905 (Paris: Plon, 1979), passim; on Proust and Veronal see D. Mabin, “Sommeil et autom édication de Marcel-Proust,” Neurophysiologie Clinique, 24 (1994), 61–74, p. 66. 8. W. E. Hambourger, “A Study of the Promiscuous Use of the Barbiturates,” JAMA, 112 (Apr. 8, 1939), 1340–1343.
9. See L. I. M. Castleden, “Hypnotic Drugs,” Practitioner, 137 (1936), 358–368, p. 365. 10. Arthur N. Foxe, “On Sedativism,” Medical Record, 156 (1943), 665–666, p. 665. 11. Louis Lasagna, “The Newer Hypnotics,” Medical Clinics of North America, 41 (1957), 359–368, p. 366.
12. See Heinz Lehmann and Thomas Ban, Pharmacotherapy of Tension and Anxiety (Springfield: Charles C Thomas, 1970), 1–13.
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17. Donald F. Klein and John M. Davis, Diagnosis and Drug Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1969), 410.
18. Heinz Lehmann, discussion, in Jonathan O. Cole and Ralph W. Gerard, Eds., Psychopharmacology: Problems in Evaluation (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council, 1959), 602–603.
19. State of New York. Nineteenth Annual Report of the Director of the New York State Psychiatric Institute for the Fiscal Year Ended March 31, 1948 (Utica: State Hospitals Press, 1948), 13.
20. See EdwardShorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era (New York: Free Press, 1992).
21. Matthias M. Weber, Die Entwicklung der Psychopharmakologie im Zeitalter der naturwissenschaftlichen Medizin (Munich: Urban & Vogel, 1999), 45–47. 22. On the amphetamines in the treatment of nonmelancholic depression, see Edward Shorter, Before Prozac: The Troubled History of Mood Disorders in Psychiatry (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 24–33. On methylene blue in mood disorders see Pietro Bodoni, “Dell’azione sedativa del bleu di metilene in varie forme di psicosi,” Clinica Medica Italiana, 38 (1899), 217–222; G. J. Naylor et al., “A Two-Year Double-Blind Crossover Trial of the Prophylactic Effect of Methylene Blue in Manic-Depressive Psychosis,” Biological Psychiatry, 21 (1986), 915–920; Maike J. Ohlow et al., “Phenothiazine: The Seven Lives of Pharmacology’s First Lead Structure,” Drug Discovery Today, 16 (2011), 119–131.
23. Joseph J. Schildkraut, “The Catecholamine Hypothesis of Affective Disorders: A Review of Supporting Evidence,” AJP, 122 (1965), 509–522.
24. J. H. Gaddum, “Drugs Antagonistic to 5-Hydroxytryptamine,” in E. W. Wolstenholme et al., Eds., Ciba Foundation Symposium on Hypertension: Humoral and Neurogenic Factors (London: Churchill, 1954), 75–77.
25. Arvid Carlsson et al., “On the Biochemistry and Possible Functions of Dopamine and Noradrenaline in Brain,” in J. R. Vane et al., Eds., Ciba Foundation Symposium on Adrenergic Mechanisms (Boston: Little Brown, 1960), 432–439. 26. Carlsson recounted his humiliation and subsequent triumph in an interview with Edward Shorter and David Healy in Gothenburg, Feb. 27–28, 2007. 27. Arvid Carlsson, “Physiological and Pharmacological Release of Monoamines in the Central Nervous System,” in U. S. von Euler et al., Eds., Mechanisms of Release of Biogenic Amines (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1966), 331–346.
28. Alec Coppen et al., “Potentiation of the Antidepressive Effect of a MonoamineOxidase Inhibitor by Tryptophan,” Lancet, 1 ( Jan. 12, 1963), 79–81. 29. See D. L. Murphy at al., “Current Status of the Indoleamine Hypothesis of the Affective Disorders,” in Morris A. Lipton et al., Eds., Psychopharmacology: A Generation of Progress (New York: Raven Press, 1978), 1235–1247, p. 1238. 30. Merton Sandler interview, in Thomas A. Ban, Ed., An Oral History of Neuropsychopharmacology: The First Fifty Years. Peer Interviews, Vol. 3 (Brentwood, TN: ACNP, 2011), 468.
31. Alec Coppen, “The Biochemistry of Affective Disorders,” BJP, 113 (1967), 1237– 1264, p. 1258.
32. Alvan Feinstein, discussion, in Joseph D. Cooper, Ed., The Efficacy of Self-Medication (Washington, DC: Interdisciplinary Communication Associates, 1973), 18; Philosophy and Technology of Drug Assessment, Vol. 4, of the Interdisciplinary Communications Program of the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution).
33. Marie Asberg et al., “‘Serotonin Depression’—A Biochemical Subgroup within the Affective Disorders,” Science, 191 (Feb. 6, 1976), 478–480, p. 478.
34. Thomas Ban, interview by Edward Shorter, July 11, 2002.
35. Peter Waldmeier interview, “From Mental Illness to Neurodegeneration,” in David Healy, Ed., The Psychopharmacologists, Vol. 1 (London: Chapman & Hall, 1996), 565–586, p. 567.
36. G. W. Ashcroft et al., “Changes on Recovery in the Concentrations of Tryptophan and the Biogenic Amine Metabolites in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of Patients with Affective Illness,” Psychological Medicine, 3 (1973), 319–325, p. 319.
37. George Ashcroft, interview, “The Receptor Enters Psychiatry,” in David Healy Ed., The Psychopharmacologists, Vol. 3 (London: Arnold, 2000), 189–200, p. 192.
38. Alec Coppen, discussion, in B. I. Hoffbrand et al., Eds., “Biological Aspects of Clomipramine,” Postgraduate Medical Journal, 52 (Suppl. 3) (1976), 16–17. 39. William Z. Potter et al., “Selective Antidepressants and Cerebrospinal Fluid: Lack of Specificity on Norepinephrine and Serotonin Metabolites,” Archives of General Psychiatry, 42 (1985), 1171–1177.
40. William Z. Potter, interview, in Ban, Oral History of Neuropsychopharmacology, Vol. 5, 265–267.
41. Ross Baldessarini interview in Ban, Oral History of Neuropsychopharmacology, Vol. 5, 25.
42. Irving Kirsch, The Emperor’s New Drugs: Exploding the Antidepressant Myth (New York: Basic Books, 2010).
43. A. Todrick et al., “The Inhibition of Human Platelet 5HT Uptake by Tricyclic Antidepressant Drugs,” Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 21 (1969), 751–762.
44. Desipramine 45. Desipramine 46. Desyrel ad, AJP, 139 (1982).
47. Maprotiline ad, AJP, 140 (1983).
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49. Seymour S. Kety, “Strategies of Basic Research,” in Morris A. Lipton et al., Eds., Psychopharmacology: A Generation of Progress (New York: Raven Press, 1978), 7–11, p. 10.
50. Laurent Maitre, discussion, in “Biogenic Amines and Affective Disorders: Proceedings of a Symposium held in London 18–21 January 1979,” in T. H. Svensson and A. Carlsson, Eds., Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 61 (Suppl. 280) (1980), 19.
51. A. J. Puech, discussion, in “Colloque international sur l’approche moderne des d é sordres de l’humeur, Monte-Carlo, 3–5 Mai 1979,” in P. Deniker, Ed., L’ Encéphale, ns 5 (1979), Suppl. 581.
52. Neil Risch et al., “Interaction Between the Serotonin Transporter Gene ( 5-HTTLPR), Stressful Life Events, and Risk of Depression,” JAMA, 301 ( June 17, 2009), 2462–2471.
53. ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times, accessed September 8, 2011.
54. Eugene Paykel, discussion, in Ruth Porter, Ed., Antidepressants and Receptor Function (Chichester: Wiley, 1986), 164.
55. Prozac advertisement, JAMA, 259 ( June 3, 1988), 3092 a-c.
advertisement, Diseases of the Nervous System, 26 (1965), ad page. (Pertofrane) advertisement, AJP, 131 (1974).
56. Gavin Andrews et al. argue “that close to half the population can expect one or more episodes of depression in their lifetime.” “Lifetime Risk of Depression: Restricted to a Minority or Waiting for Most?” BJP, 187 (2005), 495–496, p. 495.

1 . Of course DSM-III did create two depressions (aside from dysphoria): the depression of unipolar disorder, called “major depression” and usually nonmelancholic in nature, and the depression of bipolar disorder, which frequently is melancholia. Since then, bipolar disorder has been widely, but not universally, seen as distinct from major depression. I myself am quite skeptical of the supposed difference between these two depressions in any way other than melancholia versus nonmelancholia, but have decided not to take on the whole issue in the current volume, which is really axised along the demonstration of major depression as an inadequate shadow of the nerve syndrome. Readers wishing to learn more about the bipolar– unipolar similarity might consult Michael Alan Taylor and Nutan Atre Vaidya, Descriptive Psychopathology: The Signs and Symptoms of Behavioral Disorders(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 380–383.

2 . Michael Alan Taylor, The Fundamentals of Clinical Neuropsychiatry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 167.
3. W. Mayer-Gross, Eliot Slater, and Martin Roth, Clinical Psychiatry (London: Cassell, 1954), 204–205.
4. Alfred M. Freedman, Harold I. Kaplan, and Benjamin J. Sadock, Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1975), 2595. Freedman himself had ceased to be involved with the subsequent editions of the textbook that he began.
5. Thomas Ban, personal communication, Apr. 10, 2007.
6. Pierre Pichot, Les voies nouvelles de la dépression (Paris: Masson, 1978), 2.
7. Roland Kuhn, “Corrections of Statements in the Publication by David Healy on the History of the Discovery of Modern Antidepressants,” in Thomas A. Ban et al., Eds., From Psychopharmacology to Neuropsychopharmacology in the 1980s (Budapest: Animula, 2002), 301–352, p. 318; Vol. 3 in the series The History of Psychopharmacology and the CINP, As Told in Autobiography.
8. Ibid., 334–335.
9. Bernard J. Carroll et al., “Resistance to Suppression by Dexamethasone of Plasma 11-O.H.C.S. Levels in Severe Depressive Illness,” BMJ, 2 (Aug. 3, 1968), 285–287. 10. BernardCarroll et al., “ASpecific Laboratory Test for the Diagnosis of Melancholia,” Archives of General Psychiatry, 38 (1981), 15–22.
11. Edward Shorter and Max Fink, Endocrine Psychiatry: Solving the Riddle of Melancholia (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 85–102.
12. Robert G. Priest, “A Patient Who Changed My Practice,” International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, 1 (1997), 221–222.
13. J. Craig Nelson, Dennis S. Charney, and Donald M. Quinlan, “Evaluation of the DSMIII Criteria for Melancholia,” Archives of General Psychiatry, 38 (1981), 555–559. 14. T. Hallströ m, “Point Prevalence of Major Depressive Disorder in a Swedish Urban Female Population,” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 69 (1984), 52–59. 15. Gordon Parker, personal communication to David Healy, copied to Edward Shorter, May 20, 2010. Parker emphasized that this was a “real guess,” but said he knew “of no firm data as the definitions are either imprecise or useless.” Healy himself estimates the community prevalence as about 1 per l000 population, and adds, “It depends on what you think the gearing is between detected and undetected cases—how many go undiagnosed?” Healy to Shorter, Sept. 11, 2011.
16. Henry Yellowlees, discussion, following paper of E. Farquhar Buzzard on “The Diagnosis and Treatment of the Milder Forms of the Manic-Depressive Psychosis,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 23 (1930), 888.
17. Duane G. Spiker and David J. Kupfer, “Placebo Response Rates in Psychotic and Nonpsychotic Depression,” Journal of Affective Disorders, 14 (1988), 21–23. 18. Max Fink, Convulsive Therapy: Theory and Practice (New York: Raven Press, 1979); Max Hamilton, “The Effect of Treatment on the Melancholias (Depressions),” BJP, 40 (1982), 223–230; Michael E. Thase and A. John Rush, “Treatment-Resistant Depression,” in Floyd E. Bloom and David J. Kupfer, Eds., Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress (New York: Raven Press, 1995), 1081–1097. On the revival of ECT, see Edward Shorter and David Healy, Shock Therapy: A History of Electroconvulsive Treatment in Mental Illness (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2007), 219–252.
19. Paul J. Perry, “Pharmacotherapy for Major Depression with Melancholic Features: Relative Efficacy of Tricyclic Versus Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor Antidepressants,” Journal of Affective Disorders, 39 (1996), 1–6, p. 1. 20. Per Bech and Ole J. Rafaelsen, “The Use of Rating Scales Exemplified by a Comparison of the Hamilton and the Bech-Rafaelsen Melancholia Scale,” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 62 (1980) (Suppl. 285), 128–132.
21. Per Bech, “A Review of the Antidepressant Properties of Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors,” Advances in Biological Psychiatry, 17 (1988), 58–69, p. 60. 22. Thomas Ban, personal communication, Jan. 26, 2006.
23. Robert D. Gibbons, David C. Clark, and John M. Davis, “A Statistical Model for the Classification of Imipramine Response to Depressed Inpatients,” Psychopharmacology, 78 (1982), 185–189. These data were originally reported in Niels S. Reisby et al., “Imipramine: Clinical Effects and Pharmacokinetic Variability,” Psychopharmacology, 54 (1977), 263–272.
24. Gordon Parker et al., “Sub-Typing Depression: Is Psychomotor Disturbance Necessary and Sufficient to the Definition of Melancholia?” Psychological Medicine, 25 (1995), 815–823.
25. Gordon Parker et al., Eds., Melancholia: A Disorder of Movement and Mood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 4.
26. Daniel J. Widl öcher, “Psychomotor Retardation: Clinical, Theoretical, and Psychometric Aspects,” Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 6 (1983), 27–40, p. 28. 27. Walter A.Brown, “AreAntidepressants asIneffective as They Look?” Prevention & Treatment, article 25, posted July 15, 2002; journals.apa.org/prevention/volume5/ pre0050026c.html.
28. Bernard J. Carroll, “Neurobiologic Dimensions of Depression and Mania,” in Jules Angst, Ed., The Origins of Depression: Current Concepts and Approaches (Berlin: Springer, 1983), 163–186, p. 166.
29. Michael Alan Taylor and Max Fink, Melancholia: The Diagnosis, Pathophysiology, and Treatment of Depressive Illness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), xii–xiii.
30. Tom Bolwig et al., Eds., “Melancholia: Beyond DSM, Beyond Neurotransmitters,” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 115 (2007) (Suppl. 433), 1–183.
31. Mark Olfson et al., “Trends in Office-Based Psychiatric Practice,” AJP, 156 (1999), 451–457, p. 453 Tab. 1.
32. Anthony J. Marsella, Robert M. A. Hirschfeld, and Martin M. Katz, The Measurement of Depression (New York: Guilford Press, 1987), ix.
33. Wilson M. Compton et al., “Changes in the Prevalence of Major Depression and Comorbid Substance Use Disorder in the United States Between 1991–1992 and 2001–2002,” AJP, 163 (2006), 2141–2147.
34. Ronald C. Kessler et al., “The Prevalence and Correlates of Serious Mental Illness (SMI) in the National Comorbidity Survey Replications (NCS-R),” 134– 148, in Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2006). Mental Health, United States, 2004 (Rockville, MD: Center for Mental Health S ervices).
35. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2010). Mental Health, United States, 2008. HHS Pub. No. (SMA) 10-4590 (Rockville, MD: Center for Mental Health Services, SAMHSA, 164, Tab.11.15).
36. Laura A. Pratt et al., “Antidepressant Use in Persons Aged 12 and Over: United States, 2005–2008,” National Center for Health Statistics, Data Brief, no. 76, Oct. 2011, 1. 37. “Substance Abuse” (2010), 85, Tab. 1.1.
38. Kenneth Silk, personal communication, May 18, 2006.
39. Medco “Latest News” of May 16, 2007, attached to an email press release from the Alliance for Human Research Protection of July 6, 2007.
40. E. Jane Costello et al., “Is There an Epidemic of Child or Adolescent Depression?” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47 (2006), 1263–1271, p. 1268. 41. Raymond Battegay, interview, “Forty-Four Years of Psychiatry and Psychopharmacology,” in David Healy, Ed., The Psychopharmacologists, Vol. 3 (London: Arnold, 2000), 379.
42. M. Olfson et al., “Prevalence of Anxiety, Depression, and Substance Use Disorders in an Urban General Medical Practice,” Archives of Family Medicine, 9 (2000), 876– 883; the exact figure was 18.9%.
43. M. Lethbridge-Cejku et al., Summary healthy statistics for U.S. adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2004. National Center for Health Statistics. Vital Health Statistics, 10 (228), 2006, 42, Tab. 14; survey in 2004.
44. Aaron T. Beck, Depression: Clinical, Experimental, and Theoretical Aspects (New York: Hoeber, 1967), 16, Tab. 2–3.
45. David Healy, “Dysphoria,” in Charles G. Costello, Ed., Symptoms of Depression (New York: Wiley, 1993), 23–42, pp. 26–27.
46. J. A. Ramos-Brieva et al., “Distinct Quality of Depressed Mood: An Attempt to Develop an Objective Measure,” Journal of Affective Disorders, 13 (1987), 241–248. 47. Leland Hinsie and Jacob Shatzky, Psychiatric Dictionary (London: Oxford University Press, 1940); Robert Jean Campbell, Psychiatric Dictionary, 7th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Antoine Porot, Manuel alphabétique de psychiatrie, 7th ed. (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1996). 48. Uwe Henrik Peters, Wörterbuch der Psychiatrie und medizinischen Psychologie,4th ed. (Munich: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1990), 539.
49. W. Schulte, “Nichttraurigseinkö nnen im Kern melancholischen Erlebens,” Nervenarzt, 32 (1961), 314–320, p. 315.
50. Allan V. Horwitz and Jerome C. Wakefield, The Loss of Sadness: How Psychiatry Transformed Normal Sorrow into Depressive Disorder (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). The authors make a number of excellent points but they do not understand that sadness has never been an important concept in AngloAmerican psychiatry. Moreover, in melancholia the primary affect is not sadness but pain.
51. Ramin Mojtabal and Mark Olfson, “Proportion of Antidepressants Prescribed without a Psychiatric Diagnosis Is Growing,” Health Affairs, 30 (2011), 1434–1442. 52. Steven Ornstein et al., “Depression Diagnoses and Antidepressant Use in Primary Care Practices,” Journal of Family Practice, 49 (2000), 68–72, p. 71. 53. Jina Pagura et al., “Antidepressant Use in the Absence of Common Mental Disorders in the General Population,” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72 (2011), 494–501. 54. Owen Wade, discussion, in Craig D. Burrell, Ed., Drug Assessment in Ferment: Multinational Comparisons (Washington, DC: Interdisciplinary Communication Associates, 1976), 8; Vol. 6 in the Philosophy and Technology of Drug Assessment series of the Interdisciplinary Communications Program of the Smithsonian Institution.
55. Myrna Weissman et al., “Cross-National Epidemiology of Major Depression and Bipolar Disorder,” JAMA, 276 ( July 24, 1996), 293–299, Tabs. 2, 8. 56. Kenneth B. Wells et al., “The Functioning and Well-being of Depressed Patients: Results from the Medical Outcomes Study,” JAMA, 262 (Aug. 18, 1989), 914–919, p. 918. 57. Alexander Glassman, interview, in Thomas A. Ban, Ed., An Oral History of Neuropsychopharmacology: The First Fifty Years. Peer Interviews, Vol. 7 (Brentwood, TN: ACNP, 2011), 239–246, p. 246; some material in the manuscript of the interview was omitted from the published version.
58. James Kocsis, interview, in Thomas A. Ban, Ed., The Oral History of Psychopharmacology: The First Fifty Years. Peer Interviews, Vol. 4 (Brentwood, TN: ACNP, 2011), 215–225, p. 219.
59. Walter L. Cassidy, Mandel E. Cohen et al., “Clinical Observations in ManicDepressive Disease,” JAMA, 164 (Aug. 3, 1957), 1535–1546; the findings were first reported at a conference in 1955.
60. George J. Unick et al., “Heterogeneity in Comorbidity Between Major Depressive Disorder and Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Its Clinical Consequences,” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 197 (2009), 215–224, p. 218, Tab. 3. Similar results were obtained for “feeling fatigued,” with the exception that those with mild psychological depression were no more fatigued than the normals.
61. Cassidy, Cohen et al. (1957), 1539, Tab. 4.
62. Unick (2009), 218, Tab. 3. Stomach complaints tend to be associated more with anxiety than depression. And these data sets show several depression categories as low in stomach problems. Yet if the mixed anxiety-depression form is the commonest presentation, then the lump in the stomach etc. would become depressive symptoms as well. 63. Cassidy, Cohen et al. (1957), 1539, Tab. 4.
64. Nadia Iovieno et al., “Residual Symptoms After Remission of Major Depressive Disorder with Fluoxetine and Risk of Relapse,” Depression and Anxiety, 28 (2011), 137–144, p. 141, Tab. 3.
65. Norman Sartorius et al., “Depression Comorbid with Anxiety: Results from the WHO Study on Psychological Disorders in Primary Health Care,” BJP, 168 (Suppl. 30) (1996), 38–43, p. 40.
66. M. Piccinelli et al., “Typologies of Anxiety, Depression and Somatization Symptoms among Primary Care Attenders with no Formal Mental Disorder,” Psychological Medicine, 29 (1999), 677–688, p. 677.
67. T. B. Ustun and Norman Sartorius, Mental Illness in General Health Care: An International Study (Chichester; Wiley, 1995), 358, Tab. 6.
68. See Jack D. Maser and C. Robert Cloninger, Eds., Comorbidity of Mood and Anxiety Disorders (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1990).
69. Transcript of Proceedings, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Psychopharmacological Agents Advisory Committee, Mar. 21, 1977, 91; obtained from the FDA through the Freedom of Information Act.
70. Transcript of interview of Joseph Autry by Leo Hollister, Apr. 15, 1997, in Thomas A. Ban, Ed., An Oral History of Neuropsychopharmacology: The First Fifty Years. Peer Interviews (Brentwood, TN: ACNP, 2011), Vols. 4, 6. Autry probably had the SSRI drug class in mind when he spoke of antidepressants used to treat anxiety. For Hollister and Overall’s work on mixed anxiety-depression, see John E. Overall, Leo E. Hollister, Merlin Johnson, and Veronica Pennington, “Nosology of Depression and Differential Response to Drugs,” JAMA, 195 (Mar. 14, 1966), 162–164.
71. Bill Deakin, discussion, in Merton Sandler et al., Eds., 5-Hydroxytryptamine in Psychiatry: A Spectrum of Ideas, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 195. 72. Francis P. Rhoades testimony, “In the Matter of Depressant and Stimulant Drugs, Docket no. FDA-DAC-1,” Aug. 12, 1966, p. 3291; U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Division of Dockets Management, Rockland, MD; obtained through the Freedom of Information Act.
73. I am indebted to an article by David Healy for insight into this shift. David Healy, “Some Continuities and Discontinuities in the Pharmacotherapy of Nervous Conditions before and after Chlorpromazine and Imipramine,” History of Psychiatry, 11 (2000), 393–412.
74. Julius Levine, Max Rinkel, and Milton Greenblatt, “Psychological and Physiological Effects of Intravenous Pervitin,” AJP, 105 (1948), 429–434.
75. The first advertisement for methamphetamine of which I am aware was Abbott Laboratories’ publicity for its Desoxyn brand in the treatment of obesity. See New York State Journal of Medicine, 47 (1947), 1473.
76. T. M. Ling and L. S. Davies, “The Use of Methedrine in the Diagnosis and Treatment of the Psychoneuroses,” AJP, 109 (1952), 38–39.
77. Equanil ad, Diseases of the Nervous System, 17 (1956), 36.
78. Miltown ad, New York State Journal of Medicine, 56 (1956), 5.
79. See chlorpromazine ads in Semaine des Hôpitaux, 29 (1953), 1502; 80 (1954), 1555. 80. The first ad for Thorazine, “to relieve anxiety” appeared in the New York State Journal of Medicine, 55 (1955), 1833.