Critical Mass (58 page)

HISTORICAL NOTE

Some years ago, while thumbing through my husband’s copies of
Physics Today
, I came on an article I actually could understand: a tribute to the Austrian physicist Marietta Blau. I had never heard of her, but she did groundbreaking research in cosmic ray physics in the 1930s. She was a member of the Institut für Radiumforschung (IRF) in Vienna.

The IRF, which still exists in the original building under the name Stefan-Meyer-Institut, was unique in the era between the world wars for its aggressive hiring and support of women scientists. It was the first research facility in the world to hire a janitorial staff, instead of demanding that women researchers also clean the labs. They were also the first, and perhaps remain the only institute to require the same number of toilets for women as for men. Before the Anschluss, thirty-eight percent of the research staff were women. With Nazis in power, the Jewish staff and the women were fired within relatively short order, and the IRF lost its cutting edge in research. Blau’s work was so highly regarded by Erwin Schrödinger (Nobel Prize, 1933) that he kept nominating her for the prize, which she never won. As war closed in on Europe, Einstein tried to get an American university to find a place for Blau. He was unsuccessful, but at the last possible second, he found her a position in a high school in Mexico City. Her enforced exile from the
heart of physics meant that at war’s end, Blau had lost her edge as a researcher. She worked briefly at the Brookings Institution in Long Island, and died in obscurity in Austria.

Blau’s story haunted me for years.
Critical Mass
has its origins in Blau’s life, but the physicist I created, Martina Saginor, is a work of fiction. None of Martina’s biography is based on Blau, except for her position as a researcher at the Institut für Radiumforschung. It’s also true that one of Blau’s students, Hertha Wambacher, was a secret member of the Nazi Party when the party was outlawed in Austria. However, Wambacher was not involved in weapons work or in torturing prisoners.

The Technische Hochschule für Mädchen, which Martina attends as a student and where she later works as a teacher, is my own invention. Despite the IRF’s welcoming policy toward women, the University of Vienna did not pay them a stipend. The IRF director, Dr. Stefan Meyer, paid women out of his own pocket, but many had to augment that stipend with other paying jobs.

The German effort to release enough energy from the atom to create a weapon of mass destruction took place through an institution called the Uranverein, or Uranium Club. There were a number of sites in Germany where scientists and technicians tried to create reactors that could produce a self-sustaining nuclear reaction. I created a fictitious site near Innsbruck, Austria, Uranverein 7, but to the best of my knowledge, there were no actual reactor installations in Austria.

At the end of World War II, when U.S. policy concerns shifted from Fascism to Communism, the American government brought in many Nazi weapons and rocket researchers. Under the name “Operation Paperclip,” the United States did a perfunctory investigation, or none at all, into the background of Nazis it brought into U.S. weapons labs. Some of the people had engaged personally in horrific acts of torture.

For the background and history of the IRF, I used Maria Rentetzi’s
Trafficking Materials and Gendered Experimental Practices
, New York:
Columbia University Press, 2008, as well as Brigitte Strohmaier and Robert Rosner,
Marietta Blau, Stars of Disintegration
, Riverside, California: Ariadne Press, 2006.

Dr. Johann Marton, deputy director of the Stefan-Meyer-Institut, took a day from a busy schedule to show me through the Institute building on Boltzmannstrasse, and to give me a personal history of the Institute, and the way in which it was affected by the Nazi era.

For details about Operation Paperclip, I read Linda Hunt,
Secret Agenda: The United States Government, Nazi Scientists, and Project Paperclip, 1945–1990
, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991.

For background on physics and on the race for the atomic bomb, I read Richard Rhodes,
The Making of the Atomic Bomb
, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986; Steven Weinberg,
The Discovery of Subatomic Particles
, New York: Scientific American Press, 1983; and Richard P. Feynman,
QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter
, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985.

For the history of computers and the development of the hydrogen bomb, I used George Dyson,
Turing’s Cathedral
, New York: Pantheon Books, 2012; and Stanislaw Ulam,
Adventures of a Mathematician
, New York: Scribner’s, 1976.

Although the physics in Frank Wilczek and Betsy Devine’s
Longing for the Harmonies
was beyond me, they express so perfectly my own longing for the harmonies that the book helped guide me as I created the character of Martina Saginor.

*
Nikita Khrushchev.

†
But you are dead!

‡
What are you doing here?

§
I congratulate you.

¶
The hydrogen bomb.