Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews (118 page)

5. See A. I. Heschel,
Man Is Not Alone,
229–51.

6. Vogelstein,
Rome,
332.

7. Ibid., 332, 349.

8. Ibid., 349.

9. Kenneth R. Stow, "Sanctity and the Construction of Space: The Roman Ghetto as Sacred Space," in Mor,
Jewish Assimilation,
71.

10. Quoted by Padover, "Baptism of Karl Marx's Family," 37.

11. Ibid. See also Stepelevich, "Marx and the Jews," 152.

12. Berlin,
Karl Marx,
19. Other scholars, like Padover, give the name as Herschel.

13. "Jewish Quarter,"
Encyclopedia Judaica,
vol. 10 (Jerusalem: Keter, 1972), 84.

14. Vogelstein,
Rome,
342.

15. Stepelevich, "Marx and the Jews," 151.

16. Padover, "Baptism of Karl Marx's Family," 39. Herschel Marx may not have hesitated to be baptized in the face of new Prussian restrictions, but he did protest their injustice. Padover comments, "Herschel Marx, unlike his son Karl, was not ashamed of his Jewish origins. The record, indeed, shows the contrary" (37). His ambition trumped his attachment to those origins, however.

17. Ibid., 37.

18. Stepelevich, "Marx and the Jews," 153.

19. Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte," in
The Marx-Engels Reader,
595–

20. Berlin,
Karl Marx,
21.

21. Ibid., 22.

22. Marx and Engels,
The Marx-Engels Reader,
500.

23. McKay et aL,
History of Western Society,
699.

24. Quoted by McKay et al.,
History of Western Society,
603.

25. Hertzberg,
The French Enlightenment and the Jews,
280. "Voltaire complained of the Inquisition all his life," Hertzberg writes. "He denounced the persecutions of the Jews many times as evidence of the unworthiness of the Church." Of course, Voltaire also said that Jews brought their sufferings on themselves.

26. Quoted in McKay et al.,
History of Western Society,
620. Echoing Voltaire, and returning us to the cross, is Diderot, who, in an article on the Crusades, described a "horde of priests, peasants and school children...[that] fell particularly on the Jews. They massacred them whenever they could find them; these brutish and impious people believed that they could properly avenge the death of Jesus by slitting the throats of the little children of those who had crucified him." Quoted by Hertzberg,
The French Enlightenment and the Jews,
281.

27. Quoted by McKay et al.,
History of Western Society,
621.

28. Hertzberg,
The French Enlightenment and the Jews,
305.

29. Quoted by Hertzberg,
The French Enlightenment and the Jews,
305.

30. Ibid., 300.

31. Ibid.

32. Ibid., 313.

33. Hay,
Roots of Christian Anti-Semitism,
iv.

34. See "We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah," 4.3: "The Shoah was the work of a thoroughly modern neopagan regime. Its antisemitism had its roots outside of Christianity."

35. Arendt,
Origins of Totalitarianism,
8.

36. This Aristotelian structure of narrative is sometimes criticized as being culturally conditioned, but there are reasons to suggest that it derives from something basic to human experience. The chemist John C. Polanyi, for example, says, "
Scientia
is knowledge. It is only in the popular mind that it is equated with facts. That is flattering, since facts are incontrovertible. But it is also demeaning, since facts are meaningless; they contain no narrative. Science, by contrast, is storytelling. That is evident in the functioning of our primary instrument, the eye. The eye searches for shapes. It searches for a beginning, a middle, and an end. We sense this from personal experience. But we know it also from experiments in which light beams are reflected from the human eye. The eye, viewing a person's profile, does not scan it in a mechanical fashion: it pays attention to those features it judges significant. It does not simply point, as does a camera; it paints. Since painting is a skill, so too is seeing." Polanyi, "The Responsibility of the Scientist," 39.

37. E. M. Forster, quoted by Burroway,
Writing Fiction,
14.

42. Jew as Revolutionary, Jew as Financier

1. Padover, "Baptism of Karl Marx's Family," 36.

2. Ibid., 40.

3. W. H. Auden, "September 1, 1939," in
Immortal Poems of the English Language: British and American Poetry from Chaucer's Time to the Present Day,
ed. Oscar Williams (New York: Washington Square Press, 1961), 584.

4. Marius,
Martin Luther,
482.

5. The face remained central in the Eastern Church, but in the first millennium, "Christ's head was a continent-wide symbol of Christianity." Man,
Atlas of the Year 1000,
37.

6. Alice L. Eckardt, "The Reformation and the Jews," in Fisher,
interwoven Destinies,
118.

7. Marius,
Martin Luther,
377–78.

8. Ibid., 482–83.

9. Ibid., 380.

10. Ibid., 486.

11. Quoted by Goldhagen,
Hitler's Willing Executioners,
111.

12. Quoted by Stepelevich, "Marx and the Jews," 152.

13. Ibid., 154.

14. Karl Marx, "On the Jewish Question," in
The Marx-Engels Reader,
50.

15. Ibid., 48.

16. References to Marx's thought here are drawn from the article on Marx and Marxism in
Encyclopaedia Britannica,
15th ed., vol. 23, 531–43.

17. Quoted by Avishai,
Tragedy of Zionism,
35.

18. Padover, "Baptism of Karl Marx's Family," 43.

19. Marx, "On the Jewish Question," in
The Marx-Engels Reader,
51.

20. See Sachar,
Modern Jewish History,
21, 29. Sachar cites writers, like Werner Sombart and Baron d'Holbach, who promoted such views. Sombart's
The Jews and Modern Capitalism
(1911) saw in Judaism "the close relationship between religion and business, the arithmetical concept of sin, and above all the rationalization of life."

21. Magnus,
Jewish Emancipation,
125.

22. See ibid., especially ch. 5, "The Business of Equality: Rhenish Liberals, Jewish Bankers, and Jewish Rights in Cologne, 1835–50." Magnus illustrates the interlocking network of these families with a joke that the Oppenheims told "about the signatures the respective bank heads left on hotel register manifests when they traveled: 'R. de Frankfurt,' 'O. de Cologne'" (in).

23. Sachar,
Modern Jewish History,
128–29.

24. Stepelevich,
Marx and the Jews,
157.

25. Sachar,
Modern Jewish History,
335.

26. Ibid., 336–37.

27. "Anti-Semites in the Duma,"
Boston Globe,
December 21, 1998.

28. Quoted by Berlin,
Karl Marx,
186.

29.
A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy
(1859).

30. Marx, "The Civil War in France," in
The Marx-Engels Reader,
652.

31. Berlin,
Karl Marx,
187.

32. The Catholic Church's rejection of revolution as such would be given its clearest expression by Pope Leo XIII: "And if at any time it happens that the power of the state is rashly and tyrannically wielded by Princes, the teaching of the Catholic Church does not allow an insurrection on private authority against them, lest public order be only the more disturbed, and lest society take greater hurt therefrom. And when affairs come to such a pass that there is no other hope of safety, she teaches that relief may be hastened by the merits of Christian patience and by earnest prayers to God." Encyclical
Quoti Apostolici Mutteris
(1878), quoted by Lewy,
The Catholic Church and Nazi Germany,
333.

33. Archbishop Konrad Gröbers "Handbook" for Catholics, widely circulated in Germany in the 1930s, defined Marxism as "the materialistic socialism founded primarily by the Jew Karl Marx." Bolshevism was "an Asiatic state despotism ... in the service of a group of terrorists led by Jews." Ibid., 277.

34.
National Catholic Reporter,
December 11, 1998. Father Gumpel was cited earlier in this book for resuscitating the old charge that "the Jews" killed Christ, a statement he made the week after John Paul II's historic act of repentance in March 2000.

35. Küng,
Judaism,
256. A condemnation of Communism was issued by the Holy Office, successor to the Inquisition, on July 1, 1949. See "Pius XII, Pope,"
New Catholic Encyclopedia,
vol. 11, 418.

36. Charles Coughlin, quoted by Brinkley,
Voices of Protest,
266, 270–71.

37. Ibid., 266.

43. Revolution in Rome: The Pope's Jews

1. Quoted by John'T. Ford, "Infallibility,"
HarperCollins Encyclopedia of Catholicism,
664.

2. Küng,
Infallible?,
77.

3. Burns,
Dreyfus,
50.

4.
Pastor Aeternus,
in Henry Edward, Archbishop of Westminster,
The Vatican Decrees in Their Bearing on Civil Allegiance
(New York: Harper and Brothers, 1875), 154–55. See also Küng,
Infallible?,
77.

5. Hans Kühner,
Encyclopedia of the Papacy,
229.

6. Ford, "Infallibility," 664.

7. Quoted by Hill, "'I Am the Tradition,'" 9.

8.
Pastor Aeternus,
in Edward,
Vatican Decrees,
167.

9. Ibid., 159–60.

10. Gregory XVI, quoted in
National Catholic Reporter,
December 11, 1998.

11. Wolfe, "Liberalism and Catholicism," 16.

12. Vogelstein,
Rome
, 340.

13. Hill, "'I Am the Tradition,'" 9.

14. Vogelstein,
Rome,
341.

15. Hill, "'I Am the Tradition,'" 9.

16. Quoted by Marvin R. O'Connell, "Oath Against Modernism,"
HarperCollins Encyclopedia of Catholicism,
926.

17. "de Maistre, Joseph,"
HarperCollins Encyclopedia of Catholicism,
406.

18. Quoted by Kung,
Infallible
?, 104–5.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid., 106.

21. For a discussion of Honorius and other problems with papal infallibility, see Wills,
Papal Sin,
270–72.

22. Hill, "'I Am the Tradition,'" 9.

23. Wolfe, "Liberalism and Catholicism," 20.

24. Bunson,
The Pope Encyclopedia,
285.

25. Hill, '"I Am the Tradition,'" 9.

26. Bunson,
The Pope Encyclopedia,
229, 271.

27. Romberg, "Döllinger's
Die Juden,
" 235–36.

28. J. Cohen,
Essential Papers,
232.

29. Vogelstein,
Rome,
359.

30. See Kertzer,
Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara.

31. Rudavsky,
Emancipation and Adjustment,
303. Marr "was said to be of Jewish extraction" himself.

32. Komberg, "Döllinger's
Die Juden,
" 244.

33. Vogelstein,
Rome,
345–47.

34. Ibid., 358.

44. Alfred Dreyfus and
La Croix

1. Burns,
Dreyfus,
3–4. I acknowledge my debt to Michael Burns's work for my understanding of Dreyfus's background and upbringing and the broad significance of his family story.

2. Ibid., 31–35.

3. Ibid., 51.

4. Quoted by Burns,
Dreyfus,
86.

5. Ibid.

6. Hertzberg,
The French Enlightenment and the Jews,
138.

7. Rudavsky,
Emancipation and Adjustment,
276.

8. Burns,
Dreyfus,
90.

9. Hoffman,
More Than a Trial,
69.

10. Quoted by Burns,
Dreyfus,
96.

11. See, for example, Hoffman,
More Than a Trial,
17–35. Entries in both the
New Catholic Encyclopedia
(vol. 4, 1061) and the
Encyclopedia Judaica
(vol. 6, 224) begin by defining Dreyfus as a figure in a famous treason case. However, the Catholic entry concludes with a paragraph beginning, "The Catholic Church was the first to suffer the consequences," while the Jewish conclusion was that the case proved "that hatred of the Jews" had survived.

12. Quoted by Burns,
Dreyfus,
123.

13. Émile Zola, quoted in "Quand Zola S'Engageait pour le Capitaine Dreyfus,"
La Croix,
January 12, 1998, 12.

14. Emile Zola, "I Accuse," quoted by Francq and Pankiw,
Dreyfus Affair,
147.

15. See
La Croix,
January 11–12, 1998.

16. "Herzl, Theodor,"
Encyclopedia Judaica,
vol. 8, 408.

17. Burns,
Dreyfus,
436.

18.
New York Times,
February 9, 1994.

19. Burns,
Dreyfus,
254.

20. See Wilson,
Ideology and Experience,
514–15.

21. Bloy,
Pilgrim of the Absolute,
247.

22. Wilson,
Ideology and Experience,
541.

23. Quoted by Burns,
Dreyfus,
237.

24. Wilson,
Ideology and Experience,
522.

25. Quoted by Lewy,
The Catholic Church and Nazi Germany,
327–28.

26. Wolfe, "Liberalism and Catholicism," 17.

27. Wilson,
Ideology and Experience,
522.

28. Quoted by Wilson,
Ideology and Experience,
522.

29. Bloy,
Pilgrim of the Absolute,
247.

30. Wilson,
Ideology and Experience,
520.

31. Abbé Brugerette, quoted by Wilson,
Ideology and Experience,
520.