Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews (113 page)

25. Goodenough,
Jewish Symbols,
197.

26. Cited by Drijvers,
Helena Augusta,
55.

27. Smallwood,
Jews under Roman Rule,
543.

28. Frend,
Rise of Christianity,
484.

29. Ibid., 482.

30. Ibid., 484.

31. Cited by Barnes,
From Eusebius to Augustine,
390. Barnes notes that some scholars dispute the historicity of the "Speech to the Assembly of the Saints," although he accepts it.

32. Frend,
Rise of Christianity,
523.

33. Eusebius Pamphilus, "Life of Constantine," bk. 3, ch. 57, 535.

34. Cameron,
Later Roman Empire,
59.

35. Tracy,
Analogical Imagination.
See also Lynch,
Christ and Apollo.

36. Cameron,
Later Roman Empire,
69.

37. I Corinthians 12.

38. Drijvers,
Helena Augusta,
55.

39. Cited by Halbertal,
People of the Book,
6. Halbertal says that this proverb was cited by Spinoza "as he describes the widespread sectarianism of the seventeenth century."

40. "Constantine Summons the Council of Nicaea," in Stevenson,
A New Eusebius,
338.

41. Barnes,
Constantine and Eusebius,
269–70. See also Drijvers,
Helena Augusta,
56; Cameron,
Later Roman Empire,
59.

42. Here is Eusebius's summary of what happened at the council: "On this faith being publicly put forth by us, no room for contradiction appeared; but our most pious emperor, before any one else, testified that it was most orthodox. He confessed, moreover, that such were his own sentiments; and he advised all present to agree to it, and to subscribe its articles and to assent to them, with the insertion of the single word Consubstantial which, moreover, he interpreted himself saying that the Son subsisted from the Father neither according to division, nor severance: for the immaterial and intellectual, and incorporeal nature could not be the subject of any bodily affection, but that it became us to conceive of such things in a divine and ineffable manner. And our most wise and most religious emperor reasoned in this way; but they, because of the addition of Consubstantial, drew up the following formulary." Stevenson,
A New Eusebius,
345.

43. Frend,
Rise of Christianity,
527.

44. Kelly,
Early Christian Doctrines,
232. Kelly's translation of the creed differs slightly from the translation used in Catholic liturgy.

45. This translation is offered by Pelikan,
Christian Tradition,
vol. 1, 201.

46. Ruether,
Faith and Fratricide,
172.

47. Frend,
Rise of Christianity,
522.

48. For my understanding of this development I am especially indebted to Jaroslav Pelikan; see, especially,
Christian Tradition,
vol. 3, 133–34.

49. Cited by Ruether,
Faith and Fratricide,
177.

50. Eusebius Pamphilus, "Life of Constantine," bk. 3, ch. 7, cited by Cameron,
Later Roman Empire, 60.

51. Cited by Barnes,
From Eusebius to Augustine,
383.

52. Eusebius Pamphilus, "Life of Constantine," bk. 1, ch. 30, 490.

53. The Vatican observance of the arrival of the third millennium was called
Jubilaeum
A.D.
2000.
Its symbol was a cross in rainbow colors superimposed on a sky-blue globe; interlocking doves represented the continents.

54. Pelikan,
Christian Tradition,
vol. 3, 132.

55. Eusebius Pamphilus, "Life of Constantine," bk. 3, ch. 30, 528.

20. The True Cross

1. Drijvers,
Helena Augusta,
5.

2. Eusebius Pamphilus, "Life of Constantine," bk. 3, ch. 44, 531.

3. Drijvers,
Helena Augusta,
65.

4. Ibid., 67.

5. Ibid., 64.

6. Ibid., 8;.

7. Cited by Drijvers,
Helena Augusta,
82.

8. Ibid., 85.

9. Ibid., 87.

10. Ibid., 64!".

11. O'Mikle,
Pope Pius XII,
55.

12. Drijvers,
Helena Augusta,
90–93.

13. Augustine,
The Confessions,
bk. 6, ch. 3, 107.

14. See Stock,
Augustine the Reader,
61–62.

15. Cited by Brown,
Augustine of Hippo,
84.

16. Brown,
Augustine of Hippo,
86. For another view of the relationship between Ambrose and Augustine, see Wills,
Saint Augustine,
40–47.

17. Ambrose, "Funeral Oration on the Death of Emperor Theodosius," in Deferrari,
Fathers of the Church,
vol. 22, 326.

18. Ibid., 329.

19. Drijvers,
Helena Augusta,
144.

20. For a reproduction of this painting, see Bairati,
Piero Delia Francesco,
48.

21. Drijvers,
Helena Augusta,
144.

22. Isaac,
Anti-Semitism,
57. For another example of this usage, see John Paul II, "From Historical Trust to Mutual Recognition," in
Spiritual Pilgrimage,
xvii.

23. Drijvers,
Helena Augusta, 60.

24. Ibid., 61.

25. Barnes,
Constantine and Eusebius,
262.

26. Cameron,
Later Roman Empire,
85.

27. Barnes,
Constantine and Eusebius,
263.

28. Ibid.

29. Luke 21:5–6.

30. To some Jews, "the emperor's action forecast the coming of the Messiah." See Neusner,
Judaism and Christianity,
21.

31. Barnes,
Constantine and Eusebius,
263.

32. Neusner,
Judaism and Christianity,
21–22.

33. Cameron,
Later Roman Empire,
97.

34. Neusner,
Judaism and Christianity,
22. The ruins of the Temple would be a theologically based feature of the Jerusalem landscape until 638 C.E., when the Muslim caliph Omar ibn al-Khattab took the city. The Christian patriarch demanded that the new Islamic rulers continue the Christian prohibition of a Jewish presence in the Holy City, but Omar readmitted Jews, and out of respect for the Temple site, he ordered it cleaned up. When the Dome of the Rock was built, he permitted Jews to tend it. One of the ironies of political conflict in Jerusalem today is that the Temple Mount is a flashpoint between Jews and Muslims because both groups revere it. Christians do not, because Jesus is the "new Temple" and, beginning with Constantine, the Temple was superseded by the Holy Sepulcher.

35. Trevor-Roper,
Rise of Christian Europe,
36.

36. Cited by Ruether,
Faith and Fratricide,
193. See also Dudden, Sr.
Ambrose,
371–81.

37. Ruether,
Faith and Fratricide,
193–94.

21. Augustine Trembling

1. Brown,
Augustine of Hippo,
124.

2. Wills,
Saint Augustine,
xii.

3. Garry Wills prefers the title
The Testimony,
which is a more accurate translation of the word
confessiones,
and does not suggest a preoccupation with sin and guilt, a misunderstanding of Augustine's emphasis. Ibid., xv.

4. Ibid., 44.

5. Augustine,
The Confessions,
bk. 5, ch. 8, 100.

6. Brown,
Augustine of Hippo,
103.

7. Atkinson, "'Your Servant, My Mother,'" 141.

8. Augustine,
The Confessions,
bk. 9, ch. 10, 196–97.

9. Wills,
Saint Augustine,
57.

10. Augustine,
The Confessions,
bk. 9, ch. 12, 200.

11. Ibid., bk. 5, ch. 9, 102.

12. Ibid., bk. 5, ch. 2, 92.

13. Augustine,
The Trinity,
65.

14. Quoted by Harpur,
Revelations,
8.

15. Augustine, "The Correction of the Donatists," in Schaff,
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,
vol. 6, 641.

16. Cited by Brown,
Religion and Society,
278.

17. Brown,
Augustine of Hippo,
336.

18. Ruether,
Faith and Fratricide,
173.

19. Cited by Ruether,
Faith and Fratricide,
178.

20. Ibid., 179.

21. Ibid., 180.

22. Flannery,
The Anguish of the Jews,
59–60.

23. Halbertal,
People of the Book,
1–2.

24. Ezrahi,
Booking Passage,
14, 11.

25. Fredriksen, "Paul," 622.

26. Augustine,
Adversus Judaeos,
in Deferrari,
The Fathers of the Church,
vol. 2, 408.

27. Augustine, "Tractates on the Gospel According to John," in Schaff,
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,
vol. 7, 205.

28. Ruether,
Faith and Fratricide,
173–74.

29. Augustine,
City of God,
bk. 4, ch. 34, 177.

30. Ibid., bk. 18, ch. 46, 827–28.

31. Fredriksen, "Paul," 622.

32. Ibid., 624.

33. Neusner,
Judaism and Christianity,
146.

34. Fredriksen, "Paul," 624.

35. Quoted by Saperstein,
Moments of Crisis,
11.

36. Augustine,
City of God,
bk. 19, ch. 21, 861–62.

37. Augustine,
The Confessions,
bk. 4, ch. 1, 71.

22. The Seamless Robe

1. Psalm 22:16–18.

2. John 19:24.

3. Crossan,
Who Killed Jesus?,
1.

4. John 19:24–25.

5. "Trier: Colour City Guide with Map" (Pulheim: Rahmel-Verlag), 17.

6. Augustine,
The Confessions,
trans. Rex Warner (New York: New American Library, 1963), bk. 7, ch. 20, 157.

7. Augustine,
The Confessions,
trans. Pine-Coffin, bk. 5, ch. 8, 102.

8. Ibid., bk. 3, ch. 12, 101.

9. Ibid., bk. 5, ch. 8, 100–101.

10. Acts 1:26.

11. The century's third showing of the Robe was in 1996, a year when the reunification of Germany was central to the celebration.

23. The Danger of Ambivalence

1. News Brief,
National Catholic Reporter,
May 7, 1999.

2. The Catholic primate of Poland, Cardinal Jozef Glemp, denounced what he called "irresponsible groups" for erecting the new crosses, which, he said, diminished "the meaning of the cross symbol." He also said the conflict was being caused not by radical Catholics but by "continuous and increasing harassment by the Jewish side." The local prelate, Bishop Tadeusz Rakoczy, responded to the raising of the new crosses by siding with those who erected them, in defense of the papal cross. The Polish bishops' Permanent Council called for an end to "arbitrary stationing of crosses" at Auschwitz and defended the continued presence of the papal cross, giving the Catholic protesters what they wanted in the first place.

3. U.S. State Department, "The Fate of the Wartime Ustasha Treasury," 2.

4. Robin Harris, "On Trial Again,"
Catholic World Report,
August-September 1998, 41.

5. Morley,
Vatican Diplomacy,
151, 159–60.

6. Craughwell, "Pius XII and the Holocaust," 52.

7. The State Department's report "The Fate of the Wartime Ustasha Treasury" puts the figure of Jews living in Croatia at between 35,000 and 45,000; Raul Hilberg says 6,000 survived. Hilberg,
Destruction of the European Jews,
vol. 2, 708–18.

8. Harris, "On Trial Again," 42.

9. The historian István Deak called the Rat Line "one of the most shameful episodes in the history of the Vatican." In addition to Pavelič, it enabled Josef Mengele, Adolf Eichmann and Franz Stangle, the commandant of Treblinka, and "hundreds of [other] mass murderers to escape." Deak argues that Pius XII knew of and approved this activity. Deak, "The Pope, the Nazis, and the Jews, "49.

10. U.S. State Department, "Fate of the Wartime Ustasha Treasury," 2.

11. Gordon, "Saint Edith?," 20.

12. Chazan,
European Jewry and the First Crusade,
28–29.

24. The War of the Cross

1.
The Hebrew First-Crusade Chronicles: S,
cited by Chazan,
European Jewry,
225. Chazan acknowledges the problem of the reliability of the originals of the two Hebrew chronicles of the Crusades because "each is replete with erasure, omissions, and blatant errors" (223). Despite such flaws, Chazan argues for their ultimate reliability (40–49).

2. "The Chronicle of Solomon bar Simson," in Eidelberg,
The Jews and the Crusaders,
21.

3. Fulcher of Chartres, cited by Oldenbourg,
The Crusades,
86. Oldenbourg also cites Ekkehard's figure of 300,000 and Raymond of Aguilers's of 100,000; she herself puts the number at 6,000 to 7,000 knights and 60,000 foot soldiers.

4. John France, "Patronage and the Appeal of the First Crusade," in Phillips,
The First Crusade, 6.

5. "An equivalent movement nowadays would involve participation in the order of 1,320,000 persons." Ibid.

6. Oldenbourg,
The Crusades,
593.

7. Ibid., 87.

8. Blake and Morris, "A Hermit Goes to War," 101.

9. Pelikan,
Christian Tradition,
211.

10. In May 1999, Pope John Paul II made the first visit by a pope to a predominantly Orthodox country since 1054, traveling to Bucharest to meet with the Romanian patriarch Teoctist. The two old men prayed for an end to the Kosovo war, which, though mainly a conflict between Orthodox Serbs and nonreligious Muslim Albanians, reflected the wider Balkan conflict that, among other things, recapitulated the original East-West schism.