Collins Cobuild English Grammar (203 page)

R81
    The present forms of
be
can usually be contracted and added to the end of the subject of the verb, whether it is a noun or a pronoun. This is often done in spoken English or in informal written English.

I’m
interested in the role of women all over the world.
You’re
late.

We’re
making some progress.
It’s
a delightful country.

My
car’s
just across the street.

The contracted forms of
be
are shown in the table above.

R82
    Contracted forms of
be
are not used at the end of affirmative statements. The full form must be used instead. For example, you say
Richard’s not very happy but Andrew is
. You cannot say
Richard’s not very happy but Andrew’s
.

However, you can use a contracted form of
be
at the end of a negative statement if it is followed by
not
. For example,
Mary’s quite happy, but her mother’s not
’

R83
    When
be
is used in negative clauses, either the verb or
not
can be contracted. For more information on contractions in negative clauses, see paragraphs
5.59
to
5.60
.

R84
    The present and past forms of
have
can also be contracted. This is usually only done when
have
is being used as an auxiliary.

I’ve
changed my mind.
This is the first party
we’ve
been to in months.

She’s
become a very interesting young woman.
I do wish
you’d
met Guy.

She’s
managed to keep it quiet.
We’d
done a good job.

The contracted forms of
have
are shown in the table at paragraph
R80
.

R85
    ’
s
can be short for either
is
or
has
. You can tell what
’s
represents by looking at the next word. If
’s
represents
is
, it is followed by an
-ing
participle, complement, or adverbial. If it represents
has
, it is usually followed by an
-ed
participle.

She’s
going to be all right.
She’s
a lovely person.

She’s
gone to see some social work people.

R86
    A noun ending in ’
s
could also be a
possessive
. It is followed by another noun when this is the case. For more information on possessives see paragraphs
1.211
to
1.221
.

R87
    
Is
and
has
are written in full after nouns ending in
x
,
ch
,
sh
,
s
, or
z
, although in speech
has
is sometimes pronounced as
/ǝz/
after these nouns.

R88
    ’
d
can be short for either
had
or
would
. You can tell what ’
d
represents by looking at the next word. If ’
d
represents
would
, it is followed by the base form of a verb. If it represents
had
, it is usually followed by an
-ed
participle.

We’d have
to try to escape. ’
It’d be
cheaper to go by train,’ Alan said.

At least
we’d had
the courage to admit it.
She’d bought
new sunglasses with tinted lenses.

The formation of tenses

R89
    A
finite verb phrase
is the type of verb phrase that goes with a subject. It contains a form of the
main verb
(the one that you are using to convey your meaning), and often one or more
auxiliaries
.

A finite verb phrase has the following structure:

(modal)(have)(be)(be) main verb.

You choose the elements in brackets according to, for example, whether you are talking about the past or the present, or whether you are concentrating on the performer of an action or the thing affected by it. They are called
auxiliaries
.

If you want to indicate possibility, or to show your attitude to your hearer or to what you are saying, you use a type of auxiliary called a
modal
. Modals must be followed by a base form (an infinitive without
to
). The use of modals is explained in
Chapter 5
(
5.92
to
5.256
).

She
might see
us.
She
could have
seen us.

If you want to use a perfect form, you use a form of
have
. This must be followed by an
-ed
participle.

She
has seen
us.
She
had been
watching us for some time.

If you want to use a progressive form, you use a form of
be
. This must be followed by an
-ing
participle.

She
was watching
us.
We
were being
watched.

If you want to use the passive, you use a form of
be
. This must be followed by an
-ed
participle.

We
were seen
.
We were
being watched
.

If there is an auxiliary in front of the main verb, you use an appropriate form of the main verb, as mentioned above. If there is no auxiliary, you use an appropriate simple form.

The verb
do
is also used as an auxiliary, with simple forms, but only in questions, negative statements, and negative imperative clauses, or when you want to be very emphatic. It is followed by the base form of the main verb. Detailed information on the uses of
do
is given in
Chapter 5
.

Do
you want me to do something about it?
I
do
not remember her.
I
do
enjoy being with you.

R90
    A finite verb phrase always has a
tense
, unless it begins with a modal.
Tense
is the relationship between the form of a verb and the time to which it refers.

This section deals with the ways in which main verbs and auxiliaries can be used to construct different forms. The way in which particular forms are used to indicate particular times in relation to the time of speaking or to the time of an event is covered in paragraphs
4.7
to
4.69
.

R91
    When a verb is being used in a
simple form
, that is, the
present simple
or the
past simple
, it consists of just one word, a form of the main verb.

I
feel
tired.
Mary
lived
there for five years.

For
progressive
and
perfect
forms, one or more auxiliaries are used in combination with the main verb.

I
am
feeling reckless tonight.
I
have
lived here all my life.

R92
    The first word of a finite verb phrase must agree with the subject of the clause. This affects the present simple, and all forms that begin with the present or past tense of
be
or the present tense of
have
.

For example, if the form is the present perfect and the subject is
John
, then the form of the auxiliary
have
must be
has
.

John
has
seemed worried lately.
She
likes
me.

Your lunch
is
getting cold.

R93
    In this section the examples given are declarative clauses. The order of words in questions is different from the order in declarative clauses. See paragraphs
5.10
to
5.34
for information about this.

R94
    
Progressive forms
are constructed using an appropriate tense of the auxiliary
be
and the
-ing
participle. Detailed information on how to construct these forms is included below. The uses of progressive forms are explained in detail in paragraphs
4.7
to
4.69
.

R95
    The formation of active sentences is explained below. The formation of the passive is explained in paragraphs
R109
to
R118
.

R96
    The
present simple
form of a verb is the same as the base form with all subjects except the third person singular.

I
want
a breath of air.
We
advise
everyone to call half an hour before they
arrive
.
They
give
you a certificate and then
tell
you to get a job.

The third person singular form is the
s
form.

Flora
puts
her head back, and
laughs
again. Money
decides
everything, she thought.
Mr Paterson
plays
Phil Hoskins in the TV drama.

R97
    The
present progressive
is formed by using the present tense of
be
and the
-ing
participle of the main verb.

People who have no faith in art
are running
the art schools.
The garden industry
is booming
.
Things
are changing
.

R98
    The
past simple
form of a regular verb is formed by adding
ed
to the base form of regular verbs.

The moment he
entered
the classroom all eyes
turned
on him.
He
walked
out of the kitchen and
climbed
the stairs.
It was dark by the time I
reached
East London.

R99
    The
past progressive
is formed by using the past tense of
be
and the
-ing
participle of the main verb.

Their questions
were beginning
to drive me crazy.
We believed we
were fighting
for a good cause.
At the time, I
was dreading
the exam.

R100
  The
present perfect
is formed by using the present tense of
have
and the
-ed
participle of the main verb.

Advances
have continued
, but productivity
has fallen
.
Football
has become
international.
I
have seen
this before.