A Short History of Chinese Philosophy (24 page)

This, however, is in China a comparatively late theory, and in Appendices themselves there is no mention of the Five Elements. In these Appendices each of the eight trigrams is regarded as symbolizing certain things in the universe. Thus we read in 'Appendix V : "(The trigram) Ch' ien EEE

is Heaven, round, and is the father....(The trigram) K un EE is Earth and is the mother. ...(The trigram) Chen zl is thunder....(The trigram) Sun = is wood and wind....(The trigram) K an — is water...and is the moon....(The trigram) Li EZ is fire and the sun... (The trigram) Ken El is mountain....(The trigram) Tui EE: is marsh.

In the trigrams, the undivided lines symbolize the Yang principle, and the divided lines the Yin principle. The trigrams Ch ien and K un, being made up entirely of undivided and divided lines respectively, are the symbols par excellence of the Yang and Yin, while the remaining six trigrams are supposedly produced through the intercourse of these primary two. Thus Ch ien and K'un are father and mother, while the other trigrams are usually spoken of in the Appendices as their sons and daughters.

Thus the first line (from the bottom) of Ch ieh — , combined with the second and third lines of K'un EE , results in Chen Ei , which is called the eldest son. The first line of K'un, similarly combined with Ch'ien, resulls in Sun EE: , which is called the eldest daughter. The second line of Ch ich, combined with the first and third lines oi K un, results in K an EE , which is called the second son. The second line of K' un, similarly combined with Ch'

* Sec Livrs and Opinions ofEminrta Pliiliaiiphen. Honk VIII, ch. K).

22.8 THE YIN-YANG SCHOOL AND EARLY CHINESE COSMOGONY

ien, results in Li E-E , which is called the second daughter. The third line of Ch ien, combined with the first and second lines of K un, results in Ken z~z , which is called the youngest son. And the third line of K'un, similarly combined with Ch ien, results in Tui E£ , which is called the youngest daughter.

This process of combination or intercourse between Ch ien and K un, which results in the production of the remaining six trigrams, is a graphic symbolization of the process of intercourse between the Yin and the Yang, whereby all things in the world are produced. That the world of things is produced through such intercourse of the Yin and Yang, is similar to the fact that living beings are produced through the intercourse of the male and female. It will be remembered that the Yang is the male principle, and the Yin, the female principle.

In "Appendix III" of the Book of Changes we read: "There is an intermingling of the genial influences of heaven and earth, and the transformation of all things proceeds abundantly. There is a communication of seed between male and female, and all things are produced." Heaven and earth are the physical representations of the Yin and Yang, while Ch ien and K un are their symbolic representations. The Yang is the principle that "gives beginning to things; the Yin is that which completes them. Thus the process of the production of things by the Yang and Yin is completely analogous to that of the production of living beings by the male and female.

In the religion of the primitive Chinese, it was possible to conceive of a father god and mother goddess who actually gave birth to the world of things. In the Yin-Yang philosophy, however, such anthropomorphic concepts were replaced by, or interpreted in terms of, the Yin and Yang principles, which, though analogous to the female and male of living beings, were nevertheless conceived of as completely impersonal natural forces.

230,

THE YIN-YANG SCHOOL AND EARLY CHINESE COSMOCONY

CHAPTER 13

THE REALISTIC WING OF CONFUCIANISM: HSUN TZU

I HE three greatest figures of the School of Literati in the Chou dynasty were Confucius (551-479), Mencius (371?-289? ) and Hsiin Tzu. The latter's dates are not definitely known, but probably lay within the years 2.98 and 238 B.C.

Hsiin Tzu's personal name is K'uang, but he was also known under the alternative name of Hsun Ch'ing. He was a native of the state of Chao in the southern part of the present Hopei and Shansi provinces. The Shih Chi or Historical Records says in its biography of him (ch. 74) that when he was fifty he went to the state of Ch i, where he was probably the last great thinker of the academy of Chi-hsia, the great center of learning of that time. The book hearting his name contains thirty—two chapters, many of them detailed and logically developed essays which probably come directly from his pen.

Among the literati, Hsun Tzu's thought is the antithesis of that of Mencius. Some people say that Mencius represents the left wing of the school, while Hsiin Tzu represents ils right wing. This saying, while suggestive, is too much of a simplified generalization. Mencius was left in that he emphasized individual freedom, but he was right in that he valued super—moral values and therefore was nearer to religion. Hsiin Tzu was right in that he emphasized social control, but left in thai he expounded naturalism and therefore was in direct opposition to any religious ideas.

Position of Man

Hsun Tzu is best known because of his theory that human nature is originally evil. This is directly opposed to that of Mencius according to which human nature is originally good. Superficially, il may seem that Hsiin Tzu had a very low opinion of man, yet the truth is quite the contrary. Hsiin Tzu' s philosophy may be called a philosophy of culture. His general thesis is that everything that is good and valuable is the product of human effort. Value comes from culture and culture is the achievement of man. It is in this that man has the same importance in the universe as Heaven and Earth. As Hsiin 232 ■ THE REALISTIC WING OF CONFUCIANISM: HSUN TZU

Tzu says: Heaven has its seasons, Earth has its resources, man has his culture. This is what is meant [when it is said that man] is able to form a trinity [with Heaven and Earth]." (Hsiln-tzu, ch. 17.) Mencius said that by developing one s mind to the utmost, one knows one's nature, and by knowing one's nature, one knows Heaven. (Mencius, Vila, I.) Thus, according to Mencius, a sage, in order to become a sage, must "know Heaven." But Hsiin Tzu maintains, on the contrary: "It is only the sage who does not seek to know Heaven." (Hsun-lzu, ch. 17.)

According to Hsiin Tzu, the three powers of the universe, Heaven, Earth and man, each has its own particular vocation: "The stars make their rounds; the sun and moon alternately shine; the four seasons succeed one another; the Yin and Yang go through their great mutations; wind and rain are widely distributed; all things acquire their harmony and have their lives. (Ibid.) Such is the vocation of Heaven and Earth. But the vocation of man is to utilize what is offered by Heaven and Earth and thus create his own culture. Hsiin Tzu asks: Is it not much better to heap up wealth and use it advantageously than to exalt Heaven and think about it? (Ibid.) And then he continues: If we neglect what man can do and think about Heaven, we fail to understand the nature of things. (Ibid.) For in so doing, according to Hsiin Tzu, man forgets his own vocation; by daring to "think" about Heaven, he arrogates the vocation of Heaven.

This is "to give up that wherewith man can form a trinity with Heaven and Earth, and yet still desire such a trinity. This is a great illusion. (Ibid.)

Theory of Human Nature

Human nature, too, should be cultured, for, from Hsiin Tzu s view, the very fact that it is uncultured means that it cannot be good. Hsiin Tzu's thesis is that the nature of man is evil; his goodness is acquired training. (Hsiln-tzu, ch. 2.3.) According to him, "nature is the unwrought material of the original; what are acquired are the accomplishments and refinements brought about by culture. Without nature there would be nothing upon which to add the acquired. Without the acquired, nature could not become beautiful of itself." (Ibid.)

Although Hsiin Tzu s view of human nature is the exact opposite of that of Mencius, he agrees with him that it is possible for every man to become a sage, if he choose. Mencius had said that any man can become a Yao or Shun (two traditional sages). And Hsiin Tzu says likewise that "any man in the street can become a Yii [another traditional sage]." (Ibid.) This agreement has led some people to say that ihere is no real difference between the two Confucianists after all. Yet as a matter of fact, despite this seeming agreement, the difference is very real.

According to Mencus, man is born with the "four beginnings of the four constant virtues. By fully developing these beginnings, he becomes a sage.

234 THE REALISTIC WING OF CONFUCIANISM: HSUN TZU

But according to Hsiin Tzu, man is not only born without any beginnings of goodness, but, on the contrary, has actual "beginnings' of evilness. In the chapter titled On the Evilness of Human Nature, Hstin Tzu tries to prove that man is born with inherent desire for profit and sensual pleasure. But, despite these beginnings of evilness, he asserts that man at the same time possesses intelligence, and that this intelligence makes it possible for him to become good. In his own words: "Every man on the street has the capacity of knowing humanheartedness, righteousness, obedience to law and uprightness, and the means to carry out these principles. Thus it is evident that he can become a Ytt. (Ibid.) Thus whereas Mencius says that any man can become a Yao or Shun, because he is originally good, Hsiin Tzu argues that any man can become a Yii, because he is originally intelligent.

Origin, of Morality

This leads to the question: How, then, can man become morally good? For if every man is born evil, what is the origin of good? To answer this question, Hsiin Tzu offers two lines of argument.

In the first place, Hsiin Tzu maintains that men cannot live without some kind of a social organization.

The reason for this is that, in order to enjoy better living, men have need of cooperation and mutual support. Hsiin Tzu says: A single individual needs the support of the accomplishments of hundreds of workmen. Yet an able man cannot be skilled in more than one line, and one man can not hold two offices simultaneously. If people all live alone and do not serve one another, there will be poverty. (Ch. 10.) Likewise, men need to be united in order to conquer other creatures: "Man's strength is not equal to that of the ox; his running is not equal to that of the horse; and yet ox and horse are used by him. How is this?

I say that it is because men are able to form social organizations, whereas the others are unable....When united, men have greater strength; having greater strength, they become powerful; being powerful, they can overcome other creatures. (Ibid.)

For these two reasons, men must have a social organization. And in order to have a social organization, they need rules of conduct. These are the Ii (rites, ceremonies, customary rules of living) which hold an important place in Confucianism generally, and arc especially emphasized by Hsiin Tzu.

Speaking about the origin of the li, he says: "Whence do the li arise? The answer is that man is born with desires. When these desires are not satisfied, he cannot remain without seeking their satisfaction. When this seeking for satisfaction is without measure or limit, there can only be contention. When there is contention, there will be disorder. When there is disorder, everything will be finished. The early kings hated this disorder, and so they established the li [rules of conduct] and yi [righteousness, moralityJ, to set an end to this confusion.' (Ch. 19.)

In another chapter, Hsiin Tzu writes: 'People desire and hale the same 236 THE REALISTIC. WING OF CONFUCIANISM: HSUN TZU

things. Their desires are many, but things are few. Since they are few there will inevitably be strife." (Ch.

10.) Hsiin Tzu ,here points to one of the fundamental troubles in human life. If people did not all desire and hate the same

things------for instance, if one liked to conquer and the other enjoyed being conquered------there would be no trouble between them and they would live together quite harmoniously. Or, if all the things that everyone desired were very plentiful, like the free air, then too there would be no trouble. Or yet a-gain if people could live quite apart from one another, the problem would be much simpler. But the world is not so ideal. People must live together, and in order to do so without contention, a limit must be imposed on everyone in the satisfaction of his desires.

The function of the li is to set this limit. When there are the li, there is morality. He who acts according to the li acts morally. He who acts against them acts immorally.

This is one line of Hsiin Tzu s argument to explain the origin of moral goodness. It is quite utilitarianistic, and resembles that of Mo Tzu.

Hsiin Tzu also employs another line of argument. He writes: "Man is not truly man in the fact that he, uniquely, has two feet and no hair [over his body], but ruther in the fact that he makes social distinctions.

Birds and beasts have fathers and offspring, but not the affection between father and son. They are male and female, but do not have the proper separation between males and females. Hence in the Way of Humanity there must be distinctions. No distinctions are greater than those of society. No social distinctions are greater than the li." (Ch. 5.) Here Hsiin Tzu points out the difference between what is of nature and what is of culture, or, as Chuang Tzu puts it, what is of nature and what is of man. The fact that birds and beasts have fathers and offspring and that they are either male or female, is a fact of nature. The social relationships between father and son, husband and wife, on the contrary, are products of culture and civilization. They are not gifts of nature, but achievements of spirit. Man should have social relations and the li, because it is these that distinguish him from birds and beasts. According to this line of argument, man must have morality, not because he cannot help it, but because he ought to have it. This line of argument is more akin to that of Mencius.