The Fantastic Laboratory of Dr. Weigl: How Two Brave Scientists Battled Typhus and Sabotaged the Nazis (63 page)

That night
:
Stéphane Hessel,
Danse avec le siècle
(Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1997), 83–91.

In Kraków, Eyer’s
:
Eyer to Olga Weigl, March 12, 1944; A. Rohrmann to Eyer, Nov. 16, 1946.

Weigl’s older brother
:
Weigl to Eyer, Aug. 27, 1966.

After the Warsaw . . . relief
:
Heinrich Mückter to Erich von Redwitz, Nov. 19, 1946.

The war was not easy
:
Peter Eyer, interview with author.

Just before
:
Bruce Marshall,
The White Rabbit
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953).

Balachowsky sought help
:
Ernst von Salomon,
The Captive: The Story of an Unknown Political Prisoner
(London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1961), 137–49; Marshall,
White Rabbit
, 230–53; Balachowsky testimony, PIA, LEPC1; Hessel,
Danse
, 85–91.

The secrecy
:
See NA, RG153, box 250, v. 1, clemency, pt. 6 (folders 1 and 2); Kogon
Hell
, 158–60.

To start the plan
:
Salomon,
Captive
, 137–49; Marshall,
White Rabbit
, 230–53; Balachowsky testimony, PIA, LEPC1; Hessel,
Danse
, 85–91; Kogon,
Hell
, 212–18; Durand,
Les Français
, 53–55; report by Balachowsky on events at Buchenwald, IWM, Yeo-Thomas, GB62–xx05, box 1, April 23, 1945.

Ding, whom Kogon
:
Yeo-Thomas testimony, Buchenwald trial, NA, RG153, box 254, v. 1, trial rec., pt. 2 (folder 2), 141–44.

The Gestapo telephoned
:
Ibid.; Kogon,
Hell
, 214.

At this point
:
IWM, Wing Commander FF E Yeo-Thomas, GB62–xx05, box 1; file FFEYT2/3.

The other two cases
:
Air Ministry Press conference on Feb. 15, 1946, IWM, Yeo-Thomas, GB62–xx05, box 1.

That left Hessel
:
Hessel,
Danse
.

Yeo-Thomas remained
:
Yeo-Thomas testimony, 147.

On January 17
:
Accounts of the death march here include Shoah Foundation testimonies of Seeman, Milchova, Ryszard Arie Fleck, and Schiff; Freddie Knoller,
Living with the Enemy: My Secret Life on the Run from the Nazis
(London: Metro Publishing, 2005); YVA testimony by Blankenheim; Ryszard Wójcik interviews of Henryk Meisel and Felicja Meisel-Mikolajczyk.

In the beginning
:
Shoah Foundation, Bruno Seeman.

The men, separated
:
See YVA testimonies of Wonda Blankenheim, Bronisław Seeman, Ryszard Fleck, Henryk Meisel, and Felicja Meisel-Mikolajczyk.

They died by the hundreds
:
Pineau,
Simple
, 537.

Alfred Balachowsky’s diary
:
“Notes faites par A. Balachowsky,” in ARC037, IHTP.

The French, sustained
:
Pineau,
Simple
, 537–39.

Again, Fleck was
:
Jellinek interview with Schnelle.

On February 9, Erwin Ding
:
Erwin Schuler, insurance claim, DGVG-Ding, green box.

Increasingly he was plotting
:
Bayle,
Croix
, 1172.

In the final days
:
Fleck,
Denkstile
, 492.

As the Americans approached
:
Howard Cohn, personal communication; Kogon,
Hell
, 283–88.

On April 11, a crowd
:
John Berman testimony.

Ryszard Fleck remembered
:
Ryszard Fleck testimony.

“
When I walked into
”:
Shoah Foundation, 44720 Leon Bass.

The Communists put up
:
Meyer Levin,
In Search
(New York: Paperback Library, 1961), 216–18.

Chapter 12: Imperfect Justice

About a week
:
Ding-Schuler statement, June 18, 1945, NA, RG153, box 252, v. 1, trial rec., pt. 3 (folder 3).

Only a few months earlier
:
Ding to Osiander, Aug. 16, 1944, BA-Berlin, VBS283/6055002585.

Just as he won his
:
E.g., DVDG-Ding Ordner 1546, Aktenvermerk, March 31, 1945, re “Mittelwerke”; Ordner 1548 “Geheim,” Schuler to Mrugowsky, March 18, 1945; Mrugowsky to Lolling, Feb. 10, 1945.

Ding-Schuler had
:
François Bayle,
Croix gammée contre caducée: Les expériences humaines en Allemagne pendant la deuxième Guerre mondiale
(Neustadt, 1950), 1178.

If citizen Schuler
:
Ibid., 1199–201.

It may have been
:
Rose interrogation, NA, RG238, ser. M1019, roll 60, frame 151.

“
My wife is alone
”:
Bayle,
Croix
, 1200.

After the war
:
Air Ministry press conference on Feb. 15, 1946, IWM, Yeo-Thomas, GB62–xx05, box 1, file FFEYT2/3; BA-Berlin, Do/1/28859 Standort 51, Magazine M 3 10.

But Irene
:
“Allocution de M. Pierre Juliette,” in “Remise de l’épée d’académicien” for Balachowsky, 1972, PIA, BAL1.

There were many Nazi
:
Gerstein is viewed sympathetically in
A Spy for God: The Ordeal of Kurt Gerstein
, trans. Norman Denny (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971), and in Robert Proctor,
Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 290; Wirths’s story is in Hermann Langbein,
People in Auschwitz
, trans. Harry Zohn (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 385; Grawitz’s end is mentioned in Naomi Baumslag,
Murderous Medicine: Nazi Doctors, Experimentation, and Typhus
(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005), 180.

Many more tried
:
Materials on the investigation of Weber, at Kew, WO309/469 and W0309/472, including an amusing account of the search by British agents leading to his arrest.

The SS commander of Galicia
:
Raul Hilberg,
The Destruction of the European Jews
(New York: Holmes & Meier, 1985), 708.

Several hundred
:
Norbert Frei, A
denauer’s Germany and the Nazi Past: The Politics of Amnesty and Integration
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 67, 94, 178.

In their declaration at Yalta
:
The Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals
(Washington, DC: GPO, 1949), 8.

The origins of
:
“International scientific commission for the investigation of med war crimes,” Kew, WO309/471. I thank Paul Weindling for drawing my attention to this file.

The medical war crimes
:
Paul Weindling, personal communication; Weindling, “From International to Zonal Trials: The Origins of the Nuremberg Medical Trial,”
Holocaust and Genocide Studies
14 (2000): 367–89.

At a May 15, 1946
:
Kew, WO309/471, “International.”

In a July 31, 1946, consultation
:
“Minutes of meeting to discuss war crimes of medical nature executed in Germany under the Nazi regime. Appendix B: Outline of Principles and Rules of Experimentation on Human Subjects,” PIA, box LEP1.

Some, such as
:
Paul Weindling, “Human Guinea Pigs and the Ethics of Experimentation,”
BMJ
313 (1996): 1467–70.

Andrew C. Ivy, an American
:
Kew, W0309/471, “International.”

The Doctors’ Trial
:
Opening statement of the prosecution,
U.S.A. v. Brandt
, Dec. 9, 1946, HNOC, HLSL 565.

Doctor colleagues of
:
Paul Weindling,
Nazi Medicine and the Nuremberg Trials: From Medical War Crimes to Informed Consent
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 204–8.

The latter defended
:
Trials of War Criminals,
539–54; Herbert D. Chalke, “Typhus: Experiences in the Central Mediterranean Force,”
British Medical Journal
1, no. 4460 (June 29, 1946): 978–80. A fascinating, if revolting, account of the method for production of the Algerian vaccine is at T. E. Woodward, “Rickettsial Vaccines with Emphasis on Epidemic Typhus: Initial Report of an Old Vaccine Trial,”
South Africa Medical Journal
(Oct. 1986): 73.

In a crowning irony
:
Bayle,
Croix
, 1226–27; Ciepielowski testimony in Buchenwald trial, NA, RG153, box 255, v. 1, pt. 4 (folder 10), 1230–31.

Fleck came to Nuremberg
:
Fleck, “Zwei Zeugenaussagen im IG-Farben-Prozess,” in
Denkstile
, 497–99.

Fleck was devastated
:
Fleck letter to Hirszfeld, in
Denkstile
, 582.

Many other scientists
:
Weindling,
Nuremberg
, 216.

Most went back to their old
:
See, e.g., Ernst Nauck et al.,
Tropical Medicine and Parasitology
, FIAT Review of German Science, 1939–1945 (Wiesbaden: Office of Military Government for Germany, 1948); Rudolf Wohlrab, “Kudicke,”
Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift
86 (1961): 1882–83. Eyer’s obituaries of his racialist colleagues included “Nachruf auf Karl Kisskalt,” ibid., 87 (1962): 1473; “Franz Redeker” (Nachruf), ibid., 88 (1963): 1063; “In Memoriam Ernst Georg Nauck,”
Archives der Hygiene
152 (1968): 193; “Ernst Rodenwaldt zum Gedächtnis,”
Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift
108 (1966): 120.

On January 17, 1945
:
Heinrich Mückter to Josef von Redwitz, Nov. 19, 1946.

In the closing
:
Institut für Fleckfieber und Virusforschung des Oberkommandos des Heeres at Roth, Bavaria, 1945, NA, RG331, CIOS Report, item 24, file #XXIV-5/3.

The U.S. Army held
:
Peter Eyer, interview and communications with author.

Poland is a country
:
Ryszard Wójcik, “Pakt z diabłem” (Pact with the devil),
Przegl
d tygodniowy
4 (617) (1994).

The postwar years
:
Henryk Gaertner, interview in the documentary film
To Overcome Death: Professor Rudolf Weigl
, dir. Halina Szymura (TV Katowice, 2009); Wójcik interviews with Mr. and Mrs. Giercuszkiewic, Sept. 1979; Wójcik interview with Wojciechowska, Jan. 1979; Wiktor Weigl, “Wspomnienia o moim Ojcu,” in Z
wyci
y
tyfus—Instytut Rudolfa Weigla we Lwowie. Dokumenty i wspomnienia
, ed. Zbigniewa Stuchly (Wrocław: Sudety, 2001), accessed at http://lwow.home.pl/weigl/turek.html.