White Bread (39 page)

26
.  Fred Robbins and David Ragan,
Richard Pryor: This Cat's Got 9 Lives!
(New York: Delilah Books, 1982).

27
.  International Multifoods,
Naturally Good Baking
(Minneapolis: International Multifoods, 1970), 1.

28
.  “Chicago's Bread Shop: A Cooperative Business That Serves the People,”
Rising Up Angry
, March 17–April 7, 1974, 10; Ray Wagner, “Little Bread Company: A Socialist Working Collective,”
Northwest Passage
, April 1974, 8.

29
.  Laurel Robertson, Carol Flinders, and Bronwen Godfrey,
Laurel's Kitchen: A Handbook for Vegetarian Cookery and Nutrition
(New York: Bantam Books, 1976), 50.

30
.  McGrath, “Food for Dissent.”

31
.  Peggy Orenstein, “The Femivore's Dilemma,”
New York Times Magazine
, March 11, 2010, 11.

32
.  Ibid. Critiques of the piece include Laura Flanders, “The Femivore's Real Dilemma,”
Nation
,
http://www.thenation.com/blog/femivores-real-dilemma
; Bonnie Azab Powell, “The ‘Femivore': New Breed of Feminist or Frontier Throwback?”
Ethicurean
,
http://www.ethicurean.com/2010/03/14/femivore/
; Members of WAM! “Femivores in the Henhouse: Feminists Debate the Meaning of ‘Chicks with Chicks,' “
In These Times
,
http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/5914/femivores_in_the_henhouse/
.

33
.  Quoted in McGrath, “Food for Dissent,” 151.

34
.  For more on this shift, see Belasco,
Appetite for Change;
McGrath, “Food for Dissent.”

35
.  Bernard Pacyniak, “White Bread Poised for a Comeback,”
Bakery
, August 1985, 88–90.

36
.  Leonard Sloane, “Baking Industry Is Rising above Its Past Conservatism,”
New York Times
, October 9, 1969; Walsh and Evans,
Economics of Change in Market Structure, Conduct, and Performance
.

37
.  “Control on Food Ads Asked of U.S. Agencies,”
Los Angeles Times
, February 16, 1971.

38
.  Examples include “Digger Bread”; Ed Minteer, “Our Slant: Order Certain to Prevail,”
Albuquerque Journal
, November 1, 1970, A4; John Nobel Wilford, “White Bread Diet Starves Rats, Scientist Reports,”
New York Times
, October 22, 1970, 32; “White Bread Fatal,”
Alternate Society
3, no. 1 (1971): 1.

39
.  Jeanne Voltz, “Faddists Do Some Good, Says Expert,”
Los Angeles Times
, November 20, 1972, F3.

40
.  Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs,
Dietary Goals for the United States
(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977). Under pressure from the cattle, dairy, and other industries, the report's recommendations were revised and tamed later that same year.

41
.  “Sharp Gains Seen in Bread Consumption”; Cravitz, “Variety Bread Sales Slow after Hot '76”; Love, “Variety Bread Sales Gain”; Patricia Wells, “In U.S. Kitchens Bread Baking Is on the Rise,”
New York Times
, April 19, 1978, C1; “Fiber Breads on the Move!”
Bakery Production and Management
, November 1976, 66–72.
Baking Industry
marked the fiber era with a series of articles in its December 1976 issue.

42
.  This account of Pepperidge Farms draws on “Rudkin of Pepperidge,”
Time
, July 14, 1947; “Margaret Rudkin: Champion of the Old-Fashioned,”
Time
, March 21, 1960; “Bread Company Notes 25th Year,”
New York Times
, September 20, 1962, 37; “Henry Rudkin” (obituary),
New York Times
, April 23, 1966, 31; “Mrs. Margaret Rudkin” (obituary),
New York Times
, June 2, 1967, 41; Jean Hewitt, “New Breads Boast Natural Ingredients,”
New York Times
, March 20, 1972, 44; Clarence Woodburn, “Our Daily Bread,”
Reader's Digest
, May 1945, 49–51

43
.  This account of Arnold Bakers draws on Hewitt, “New Breads Boast Natural Ingredients”; Robert D. McFadden, “Paul Dean Arnold” (obituary),
New York Times
, April 6, 1985, 26; Mimi Sheraton, “If Bread Boredom Sets In, Try an Innovative Slice,”
New York Times
, February 22, 1976, 22.

44
.  Pacyniak, “White Bread Poised for a Comeback.” See also Martha Shulman, “The Graining of America,”
Texas Monthly
, December 1978, 160–66; Cravitz, “Variety Bread Sales Slow after Hot '76.”

45
.  Mimi Sheraton, “The Good Foods of '76 and Some of the Bad,”
New York Times
, December 27, 1976, 44; “Fiber Breads on the Move!” See also Levenstein,
Paradox of Plenty
, 198.

46
.  Sheraton, “If Bread Boredom Sets In, Try an Innovative Slice.”

47
.  John L. Hess, “ ‘Plasticized, Tasteless Breads' Give Rise to a Kitchen Revolt,”
New York Times
, October 4, 1973, 52. See also Wells, “In U.S. Kitchens Bread Baking Is on the Rise”; Levenstein,
Paradox of Plenty;
Karen Hess, “Boom … in Bread,”
Vogue
, April 1979, 272; Craig Clairborn and Pierre Franz, “For the Do-It-Yourself Baker,”
New York Times
, August 15, 1982, SM46; “Five Healthy Breads to Make from One Basic Recipe,”
Glamour
, January 1979, 41; “Fiber in New Bread Is Wood Pulp, Not Grain, McGovern Says,”
Los Angeles Times
, April 1, 1977, A30; Marian Burros,
Pure and Simple: Delicious Recipes for Additive-Free Cooking
(New York: William Morrow, 1978), 24; Donald Davis, “The Wheat in Bread,”
Los Angeles Times
, July 14, 1974, J11; Jean Mayer, “Investigating Charge of Adulterated Darker Bread,”
Los Angeles Times
, December 5, 1974, K13.

48
.  Hess, “Boom … in Bread.”

49
.  David Harvey,
A Brief History of Neoliberalism
(Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007), 25.

50
.  Gary S. Cross,
An All-Consuming Century: Why Commercialism Won in Modern America
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2000); Harvey,
A Brief History of Neoliberalism
. Ronald Butler spoke of the way baking followed this trend toward segmentation and niche marketing in a February 13, 1986, speech, “Trends in the Baking Industry,” at the American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, KS. Transcript available at the institute's Ruth Emerson Library.

51
.  Heather Brown, “Vying to Become the ‘Starbucks' of Bread,”
Modern Baking
, September 1997, 70–78. See also “The New Multi-Unit Retail Bakeries,”
Modern Baking
, August 1995; “Artisan Bread Popularity Creates Challenges for Bakers,”
Modern Baking
, June 1997, 32; Margaret Littman, “Bread Rises to the Occasion,”
Bakery Production and Marketing
, May 15, 1996, 52–64; “The Rise of Speciality Bread,”
Baking Buyer
, August 1997, 26–29.

52
.  Carol Meres Krosky, “Retailers Sharpen Focus on Specialty Products,”
Bakery
, July 1986, 120–32. See also Pacyniak, “White Bread Poised for a Comeback”; Stillwell, “A Study on Current Trends of Bread Consumption.”

53
.  Mimi Sheraton, “A Toast to Ethnic Bakeries,”
New York Times
, April 20, 1977, 57.

54
.  Bernard Pacyniak, “Making the Right Move,”
Bakery
, May 1989, 50–51.

55
.  Nan Ickeringill, “Food: The Flavor of France in Bread,”
New York Times
, April 15, 1963, 52.

56
.  Interview by author at the American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas, September 26, 2006.

57
.  Dragonwagon,
The Commune Cookbook
, 17.

58
.  Greg Beato, “In Our Foodie Culture, White Bread Is Toast,”
Washington Post
, August 15, 2010, B3.

59
.  Ibid.

60
.  Ernst Matthew Mickler,
White Trash Cooking
(Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed, 1986); Connie McCabe, “KC BBQ,”
Saveur
, May 21, 2007.

61
.  Crimson Spectre, “White Trash Manifesto,” lyrics,
S/T
(Fredericksburg, VA: Magic Bullet Records, 2004).

62
.  Zimmers Hole, “White Trash Momma,” lyrics,
Legion of Flames
(West Yorkshire, UK: HevyDevy Records, 2001).

1
.  Sandor Katz,
Wild Fermentations: The Flavor, Craft, and Nutrition of Life-Culture Foods
(New York: Chelsea Green, 2003), 32.

2
.  The original spark for this chapter emerged from a conversation with Melanie DuPuis.

3
.  Ann Vaughan-Martini and Alessandro Martini, “Facts, Myths, and Legends on the Prime Industrial Microorganism,”
Journal of Industrial Microbiology
14 (1995): 514–22. Organized use of yeasts for bread and fruit-wine production began around 6000 BCE, and what was probably the first “human-initiated” fermentation (the brewing of sickly sweet, slightly fizzy, mildly alcoholic wine from honey and water) may date as far back as 15000 BCE. Katz,
Wild Fermentations;
Isak Pretorius, “Tailoring Wine Yeast for the New Millennium: Novel Approaches to the Ancient Art of Winemaking,”
Yeast
16 (2000): 675–729; Graeme Walker,
Yeast Physiology and Biotechnology
(New York: Wiley & Sons, 1998).

4
.  Pretorius, “Tailoring Wine Yeast for the New Millennium”; Vaughan-Martini and Martini, “Facts, Myths, and Legends on the Prime Industrial Microorganism.”

5
.  This operates through numerous pathways, but yeast's importance in animal nutrition plays a key role.
Drosophila melanogaster
, for example, a fruit fly indigenous to even the cleanest winery, consumes prodigious quantities of yeast, blending
Saccharomyces
DNA in its digestive tract and spreading mutated yeast spores through the environment via its feces. Sandra Rainieri, Carlo Zambonelli, and Yoshinobu Kaneko, “Saccharomyces Sensu Stricto: Systematics, Genetic Diversity, and Evolution,”
Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering
96, no. 1 (2003).

6
.  M. de Barros Lopes, J. R. Bellon, N. J. Shirley, and P. F. Ganter, “Evidence for Multiple Interspecific Hybridisation in Saccharomyces Sensu Stricto Species,”
FEMS Yeast Research
1 (2002): 323–31

7
.  Dominique Fournier, “A Gift from the Gods,”
Slow: The International Herald of Taste
, July–September 2001.

8
.  On companion species, see Donna Jeanne Haraway,
The Companion Species Manifesto: Dogs, People, and Significant Otherness
(Chicago: Prickly Paradigm, 2003).

9
.  On the biopolitics of fermentation, see Heather Paxson, “Post-Pasteurian Cultures: The Micropolitics of Raw-Milk Cheese in the United States,”
Cultural Anthropology
23, no. 1 (2008): 15–47.

Please note that page numbers are not accurate for the e-book edition.

abundance.
See
control and abundance, dreams of

acidosis, 90

Acme Bakery, 12, 184, 185–86

advertising: Bimbo Bread, 155; children in bread, 126; for enriched bread, 119, 120, 125–26; images of bread from 1920s and 1930s, 58; language of “clean” bread in, 40–41; promoting bread, 96; Wonder bread, 70, 178

aesthetics: appeal of industrial bread and, 124; of control, 71; streamlined loaf and, 58; whiteness, 64–66

agribusiness, 11, 71, 76, 77, 113, 144, 171

agricultural development: in India, 158–59; Mexican Green Revolution model of, 155–58; in Mexico, 152–53

aid, food, 135

Albanese, Catherine, 82

Alcott, Bronson, 84, 86

Alcott, Louisa May, 84

Alcott, William Andrus, 84

Alsop bleaching process, 66, 67

alternative food movement, 9–10, 203n15; as affluent and white, 12; criticism of, 71; elitism in, 12–13; as encompassing liberals and conservatives, 105–7; “the femivore's dilemma,” 175–76; on knowing where your food comes from, 48–49; on national food security, 107.
See also
counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s

American Bakers Association, 24, 100

American Institute of Baking, 98, 99, 122, 154

The American Woman's Home
(Stowe), 31–32, 60

amylophobia (fear of starch), 78, 91, 103

Amy's Bakery (New York), 184

Anatolia, 3

Anderson, Lee, 124–25

And the Risen Bread
(Berrigan), 168

“anti-inflammatory” foods, 73

Antoinette, Marie, 5

Armstrong, Lance, 73, 74

Arnold, Paul Dean, 180

Arnold Bakers, 161, 179, 180

Arnot Baking Company, 56

artisanal-industrial combination, 54–55

artisan bakeries, 52, 53, 54, 183–85

assembly-line bread making, 24, 26, 54, 55, 69, 185

Assyrian Empire, 3–4

Atlas, Charles, 91

Au Bon Pain, 183

automatic baking, 20–21, 24, 53.
See also
industrial bread

B1 vitamin, 115

B2 vitamin, 110

back-to-land movement, 8

bacteria, 42–43, 184

“bad food,” xi, 16

baguettes, 51–52, 53–54, 184

Baker, John C., 69

bakeries: artisan, 52, 53, 54, 183–85; boycotts of, 41; cellar, 38–40, 44; clean bread advertising by, 40–41; concerns about cleanliness of, 37–38, 41–45; decrease in number of, 44; high-end bakeries, 183–85; immigrant labor and, 39–40; industrial bread competing with small, 69–70; industrialization of, 24; labor organizations and, 38; in the late nineteenth century, 23, 24; in Mexico, 150, 153–55; offering dark breads, 123; regulation of, 38–39; resurgence of small, 183; sliced bread offered by, 56; working conditions in, 39. See also
individual bakery names